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LOGGING
THE
PRINCIPLES AND GENERAL METHODS
OF OPERATION IN THE
UNITED STATES
BY
RALPH CLEMENT BRYANT, F.E., M.A.
manufacturers' association professor of lumbering
YALE university
FIRST EDITION
third THOrSAND
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.
London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited
1914
Copyright, 1913,
BY
RALPH CLEMENT BRYANT
Stanbopc ]pres3
. GILSON COMPANY
BOSTON, U.S.A.
TO
THE MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL LUMBER MANUFACTURERS'
ASSOCIATIOxN WITH A DEEP APPRECIATION OF THEIR
INTEREST IN FORESTRY AND FOREST
EDUCATION
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010 with funding from
University of British Columbia Library
http://www.archive.org/details/loggingprincipOObrya
PREFACE
This volume has been prepared as a text-book for use in
Forest Schools. The subject is broad in scope and an attempt
has been made to cover only the more important features of
operation; hence the innumerable variations in equipment and
method which are peculiar to different forest regions are not
included. Of the many minor industries related to logging,
only two of the more important are treated, turpentine orchard-
ing and tanbark harvesting.
One of the most difficult and costly features of a logging
operation is the movement of the timber from the stump to
the manufacturing plant and the chief facilities and methods
for doing this are discussed at length, especially logging rail-
roads. The greatest emphasis is laid on features about which
there is not much written material available, while engineering
subjects such as road surveys and the measurement of earth-
work and rock-work are omitted because they are treated in
numerous other text-books.
In preparing this volume the author has consulted freely
many of the lumber trade journals, especially The Timberman
and the American Lumberman; the various publications of the
U. S. Forest Service; "Earthwork and Its Cost," by Gillette;
articles in numerous periodicals, especially the Forestry Quar-
terly; and unpublished manuscripts.
Many of the photographs and drawings are original; the
others have been secured from various sources and credit
for them has been given whenever their origin was known.
The data on timberland ownership are from a report on the
Lumber Industry by the Bureau of Corporations of the Depart-
ment of Commerce and Labor. The log rules in the Appendix
were taken chiefly from the Woodsman's Handbook, by Graves;
VUl PREFACE
two tables of cubic contents are from the Forestry Quarterly,
and one from the Manual for Northern Woodsmen, by Gary.
The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to all who
have aided him in any way in the preparation of this volume,
particularly to Prof. Samuel J. Record, who assisted in the
correction of the manuscript.
R. C. BRY.\NT.
New Ha\t;x, Con'n.
April, 1913.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PART I. General i
Chapter I. Forest Resources 3
Stand of timber 3
Ownership of Timberlands 4
Commercial Species 5
Chapter II. Protection of Forest Property 25
Fires 25
Brush Disposal 26
Spark Arresters 30
Fuel Oil 34
Electric Drive 35
Protective Associations 35
Insurance of Standing Timber 36
Wind Damage 37
Ch.\pter III. Timber Bonds 39
PART II. Preparing Logs for Tr.\nsport 45
Chapter IV. Forest Labor 47
Length of Employment 47
Character 48
Methods of Employment and Payment 48
Unions 50
Organization 51
Workmen's Compensation Acts 51
Chapter V. Logging Camps 56
Camp Location 56
Tjpes of Camps 57
Boarding Department 67
Camp Hygiene 70
Medical Attention 70
Chapter VI. Woodworkers' Tools and Equipment 72
Axes 72
Saws 74
Power Felling Machines 78
Power Log-making Machines 79
Wedges 81
Mauls and Sledges 82
ix
X CONTEXTS
PAGE
Spring Boards 83
Kilhig or Sampson ; 83
Measuring Sticks 84
Peavey 84
Canthook 85
Pickaroon 86
Undercutters 86
Use of Kerosene 86
Chapter VH. Felling and Log-making 87
Season 87
Deadening 89
Direction of Fall 89
Organization of Crews 90
Cutting Areas 91
Notching 92
Felling 93
Stump Heights 94
Log-making 95
Power Bucking 100
Waste in Log-making loi
Barking or Rossing 104
Sniping 105
Chapter VHI. Measurement of Logs and Other Forest Prod-
ucts 107
L^nits of Measurement 107
Board Measure 107
Log Rules 108
Cubic Measure 114
Scaling 117
Log Grades 125
PART III. Lant) Transport 127
Chapter IX. Antmal Draft Power 129
Oxen 129
Horses 131
Mules 131
Rations 132
\\'ater Requirements 138
Ch.vpter X. Skid way .\nd Storage Sites 140
Log Storage in the Forest 140
Chapter XI. Hant) Logging ant) .ANaM.AL Snaking 145
Hand Logging 14S
Snaking with Animals 146
Snaking Equipment 150
Crews and Daily Output 154
CONTENTS XI
PAGE
Chapter XII. Sleds and Sled Hauling 155
The Go-devil 155
The Lizard 156
The Yarding Sled 157
The Bob 158
The Jumbo 159
The Two-sled iS9
Sled Roads 161
Operation 1 7°
Steam Log Haulers 172
Chapter XIII. Wheeled Vehicles 178
Two-wheeled Vehicles 178
Wagons 185
• Traction Engines for Wagon Hauling 192
Chapter XIV. Power Skidding 196
The Cableway System 196
The Snaking System 204
The Slack-rope System 208
Chapter XV. Aerial Tramways 222
Chapter XVI. Timber Slides and Chutes 230
Character 230
Grades 236
Curves 238
Operation 238
Chapter X\TI. Forest Railro.ads 242
Pole Roads 242
Stringer Roads 245
Steel Railroads 247
Advantages of Railroad Transportation 248
Choice of Gauge 249
Rights-of-way 250
Location 251
Chapter XVIII. Railroad Construction 257
Clearing the Right-of-way 257
Fills and Cuts 259
jMovement of Earth 262
Rock Excavation 269
Blasting 269
Explosives 271
Stump Blasting 276
Timber Work 278
Track Supplies 286
Steel Laying and Removal 290
Chapter XIX. Inclines 297
Xll CONTENTS
PAGE
Chapter XX. Motive Power and Rolling Stock 304
Locomotives 304
Logging Cars 315
Chapter XXI. Loading and Unloading Log Cars 322
Loading Cars 322
Unloading Cars 332
PART I\". Water Transport 341
Chapter XXIL Floating and Rafting 343
Disadvantages 343
Requirements for a Driveable Stream 347
Dams 349
Sluice Gates 354
Log Carriers 358
Improvement of the Stream Bed and Banks 359
Booms 360
Storage and Sorting Facilities 363
The Drive 368
A. Log Marks and Brands 370
B. Species that will Float 372
c. Labor 374
d. Conduct of the Drive 375
Small Streams 375
Large Streams 379
Rafting 381
On Streams 381
On the Ocean 390
Log Barges 392
Sunken Logs 392
Ch.\pter XXIII. Flusies .ant) Log Sluices 394
Location 395
Type of Box 396
Trestles 401
Terminals 404
Construction 405
Operation 410
PART V. Summary of Logging Methods in Specific Regions 415
Chapter XXIV 417
A. Portable Mill Operations 417
B. Northeast 424
c. Lake States — WTiite Pine 426
D. Southern Yellow Pine 427
E. Cjpress 430
F. Northwest 43 1
g. Mountain Logging in West Virginia 434
H. Alaska 436
CONTENTS xm
PAGE
PART VI. Minor Industries 439
Chapter XXV. Turpentine Orcharding 441
Methods of Operation 443
A. The Working Unit 443
B. The Size of Tree and the Number of Receptacles 444
c. The Box System 444
Cutting the Boxes 444
Cornering 445
Chipping 445
Dipping 447
Scraping 448
Raking 448
D. The Cup Systems 449
Herty's Cup and Gutter 449
Hanging the Cups 449
Chipping 452
Dipping 452
Advantages of the System 453
The McKoy Cup 453
The Gilmer-McCall Cup 454
Distillation of Crude Turpentine 455
Markets 457
Chapter XXVI. Harvesting Tan Bark 459
Hemlock 459
Chestnut Oak 463
Tan Bark Oak 464
Appendix 467
Bibliography 469
A Partial List of Trade Journals Published in the Interest of the
Lumber Industry 478
Terms Used in Logging 479
Log Rules and Tables of Cubic Contents 511
Log Grading Rules 523
Wage Lists 529
Stumpage Values 537
Partial Estimate, by States, of the Standing Timber in the United
States 543
Index , 547
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
1. Map of the United States showing natural forest regions Frontispiece
2. The Sequoia spark arrester 31
3. The South Bend spark arrester 31
4. Locomotive spark cap 32
5. The boomerang spark arrester 33
6. The Radley-Hunter spark arrester 34
7. Typical logging camp of the Northeast 59
8. A two-storied logging camp. Northern New York 60
9. A portable-house logging camp 62
10. An end and side view of the frame of a car barn 65
11. A floating camp on a cypress operation 67
12. Characteristic tj^ies of ax heads 73
13. Common types of cross-cut saw handles 75
14. Saw teeth patterns 76
15. The forms of bevel used on cross-cut saws 78
16. The endless chain saw used in bucking up logs in the Pacific Coast forests 80
17. Some patterns of wedges used by loggers 81
18. A spring board used by fallers in the Northwest 83
19. A kilhig or Sampson used in directing the fall of a tree 84
20. A socket peavey 85
21. A cant hook 85
22. A type of undercutter used in the Pacific Coast forests 86
23. An undercut on a large Douglas fir tree 92
24. A forked tree cut in a wasteful manner 102
25. Waste in a^op resulting from an improper selection of log lengths 103
26. Skidways along a two-sled road 142
27. Skidding trails leading down to a skidway along the logging railroad.
West Virginia 147
28. Oxen skidding a yellow pine log containing 1200 feet. Arkansas 147
29. A skipper road on a West Virginia operation 148
30. Various forms of equipment used in snaking logs 151
31. A turn of logs at the dump along a skipper road 152
32. A type of grab skipper and a grab maul used on a West Virginia logging
operation 153
33. A go-devil loaded with hardwood logs. Michigan 155
34. A yarding-sled used in the Northeast 157
35. Methods of fastening logs to the bunk of a yarding sled 158
36. A loaded two sled, showing the binding chains and a potter (oh the left).
New Hampshire 160
XV
XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. ' PAGE
37. Yarding sled trails leading down to a skidway on a two-sled road. Maine 162
38. A yarding sled road built up on a curve to prevent the sleds from leaving
the road. Maine 163
39. A two-sled road, showing the method of building up the grade on side
slopes 165
40. A snow shed on a two-sled road. Maine 167
41. A sprinkler being filled with water from a brook. Maine 169
42. A Lombard steam log hauler 1 73
43. Type of sled used with a steam log hauler 175
44. The method of loading logs on a bummer 178
45. The Perr>' log cart in position to load 180
46. The Perry log cart loaded 181
47. A slip tongue cart in a southern yellow pine forest 183
48. .\ four-wheeled log wagon at the skidway. IMissouri 186
49. An eight-wheeled log wagon with a load of yellow pine logs. Louisiana. 189
50. Loading a log wagon by means of the cross-haul. Missouri 191
51. A Holt three- wheeled traction engine hauHng sugar pine logs. Cali-
fornia 194
52. A steel spar cableway skidder, showing loading boom in front 197
53. A tail tree, showing the method of attaching the blocks to the tree; also
the arrangement of the guys 198
54. A cableway skidder, showing the arrangement of the lines for skidding
and loading 198
55. Cutting the top from a head spar tree on which is placed the main cable
rigging for a cableway skidder 199
56. Method of shifting the main cable from one run to another 201
57. A portable snaking machine operating in a Texas longleaf pine forest. . . 205
58. The arrangement of the roads down which logs are pulled to the pullboat 209
59. The sheave block attached to the tail tree 210
60. A single-wire tramway used in the Pacific Coast forests 224
61. A single-cable aerial tramway in use in the Pacific Coast forests 225
62. A single-cable tramway 227
63. View down a timber slide. Idaho .• 231
64. The terminus of a log slide. Idaho 232
65. A whippoorwill switch for throwing logs from a slide 233
66. A sawed timber slide, sometimes used where the wear is excessive 2;^^
67. A fore-and-aft or pole road used with a road engine. Pacific Coast. . . . 234
68. A timber chute. New Hampshire 235
69. A turn of logs ready to move along a trailing slide 238
70. An "L" hook used for attaching the tow line to the turn of logs 239
71. Goose-necks used for checking the speed of logs on heavy grades 240
72. View down a pole tram-road in Idaho 243
73. The type of car used on a pole tram-road in Idaho 244
74. A stringer road in the Appalachian mountains 246
75. Two methods of constructing a grade for a logging railroad 260
76. Method of placing caps in the primer 274
77. Forms of trestles and culverts commonly used on logging railroads 279
78. A round timber framed trestle on a logging railroad 282
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Xvii
FIG. PAGE
79. The foundation for a dunnage road 283
80. A spur logging railroad corduroyed with poles. Arkansas 285
81. A standard rail head 287
82. Forms of rail fastenings 288
83. Two forms of turnouts used on logging railroads 289
84. Diagram showing the customary elevation of the outer rail, in inches,
for various degrees of curvature 294
85. A hydraulic snubbing machine 300
86. A Climax geared locomotive 306
87. A Heisler geared locomotive 308
88. A Shay geared locomotive 309
89. A skeleton log car 317
90. A log truck of the type used in the Pacific Coast forests 319
91. Loading log cars with the cross-haul. Missouri 322
92. A Model C American log loader 324
93. The Rapid log loader 325
94. The Decker log loader 326
95. The jSIcGiffert log loader 327
96. A roUwaj' at the mill pond 332
97. Floor plan of a tilting log dump 335
98. Details of a tilting log dump 337
99. The sluice-way and apron of a rafter dam on the Priest river. Idaho 353
100. The upstream face of a small rafter dam, showing a common form of
lift gate ^ 354
loi . The bear-trap sluice gate 355
102. A half-moon gate used in a low sluice way. Wisconsin 356
103. Upstream view of a rafter dam, showing a needle gate. Appalachians 357
104. An abutment for the protection of stream banks 359
105. An artificial channel used to confine flood water in a narrow bed 360
106. The methods of fastening boom sticks with chains 361
107. A fin boom 362
108. Piers built in a river to hold storage booms in place. Minnesota 363
109. Log storing and sorting works on the St. John river. New Brunswick 364
no. A sorting gap on the St. John river near Fredericton, New Brunswick. 366
111. A patent sorting device used in the Appalachian region 367
112. Some Mississippi river log marks 371
113. A log-driving crew at the landing waiting for a head of water. New
Hampshire 376
114. A "headworks" used to tow log rafts across small lakes. Maine 378
115. A Mississippi river log raft, showing the method of control by end-
wheel steamers 382
116. Method of fastening poles to the logs by means of iron dogs 383
117. Loading the "bottom" of a raft with logs by means of a parbuckle. A
bracket boom is shown on the left 384
118. Method of attaching rafting poles to the logs by means of wooden pins. 384
1 19. Method of fastening rafting poles to logs by means of rope and rafting
pins. A method formerly used on the IMississippi river 385
120. Details of a Mississippi river log raft 386
xviii LIST OF ILLUSTR.\TIONS
FIC. PAGE
121. A cypress raft in a Louisiana bayou. The floating vegetation on the
extreme right is the water hyacinth 387
122. A raft bundle at the mill pond. North Carolina 388
123. General structural features of flume and sluice bo.xes 397
124. A V-flume for transporting mining stuUs. ^Montana 399
125. Details of a trestle bent for a lumber flume; also the method of cross-
bracing the bents 402
126. A five-leg flume trestle for heights greater than 75 feet 403
127. The terminal of a log flume, near the Deerlodge National Forest, Mon-
tana. This t}-pe is known as an "elephant" 404
128. Two types of flume terminals 406
129. A turpentine box for the collection of crude turpentine 445
130. A workman cutting incisions on the face of the tree, into which gutters
are to be inserted. Herty system 450
131. A tree equipped with a Herty cup and gutters. The first streaks will
be cut at the upper edge of each face 451
132. A Herty cup on a "yearling" crop. The cup was raised at the begin-
ning of the second season 45 2
133. The ^SIcKoy cup used for the collection of crude turpentine 453
PART I
GENERAL
LOGGING
CHAPTER I
FOREST RESOURCES
It is estimated that the original forested area of the United
States covered 850,000,000 acres and contained approximately
5,200,000,000,000 feet of timber.^ It comprised five broad
types, namely, the Northern, the Southern, the Central, the
Rocky Mountain and the Pacific Slope, the approximate bound-
aries of which are shown in Fig. i .
The distribution of the original and present forest area is
shown in the following table:
Original forest.
Present forest.
Region.
Area.
Stand.
Area.
Stand.
Per cent of
original
area.
Per cent of
original
stand.
Million
acres.
Billion
feet.B.M.
Million
acres.
Billion
feet.B.M.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Northern
Southern
Central
Rocky Mountain .....
Pacific Slope
150
220
2S0
IIO
90
I OCX?
1000
1400
400
1400
90
150
130
100
80
300
500
300
300
1 100
60
68
46
91
89
30
50
21
75
79
850
5200
550
2500
65
48
The estimated stand of timber in the United States in 1909
was as follows:^
^ Kellogg, R. S. : The Timber Supply of the United States. Cir. 166, U.S.
Forest Service, 1909.
2 Ibid.
3
4 LOGGING
Species Billion Feet, B. M
Douglas 6r 525
Southern yellow pine 350 ^
Western yellow pine 275
Redwood 100
Western hemlock 100
Western cedar 100
Lodgepole pine 90
White and Norway pine 75
Eastern hemlock 75
Western spruce 60
Eastern spruce 50
Western fir 50
Sugar pine 30
Cypress 20^
Other conifers 100
Hardwoods 500
Total 2500
Ownership.- — The standing merchantable tunber in the
United States is owned approximately as follows:
Private 75.0 per cent
National Forest 21.5 per cent
Other Federal and State 3.5 per cent
1 00.0 per cent
The private stumpage is held, chiefly, in three regions:
Pacific Northwest 46 . o per cent
Southern pine region 29 . i per cent
Lake States 4.5 per cent
Other regions 20. 4 per cent
100. o per cent
The ownership of the timber lands in the Pacific Northwest
is concentrated in a comparatively few hands. Three interests
^ The Bureau of Corporations of the Department of Commerce and Labor,
in its report on The Lumber Industry, Part I, Standing Timber, estimated the total
stand of timber to be 2800 billion feet. Among the marked differences were the
following:
Longleaf pine 232.3 billion feet
Shortleaf and loblolly pine 15 2.1 billion feet
Cypress 40.4 billion feet
- See the Lumber Industry, Part I, Standing Timber. Bureau of Corporatiors,
Department of Commerce and Labor. Washington, 1913. Pp. 11-24.
FOREST RESOURCES 5
control 24I per cent of all the private stumpage, namely, the
Southern Pacific Company, 105,600,000,0x30 board feet; the
Weyerhaeuser Timber Company, 95,700,000,000 board feet; and
the Northern Pacific Railway Company, 36,200,000,000 board
feet. Twenty holders control 43 per cent of the private stump-
age, and thirty-eight interests control 50 per cent.
In the South the holdings are not so large because the stand
of timber per acre is much lower than on the Pacific Coast.
Extensive logging operations have made conditions unfavorable
for amassing large contiguous holdings, and there have not been
the large land grants which were common in the West; conse-
quently the timber is held by a greater number of companies.
Twenty-nine interests own 16 per cent of the private stumpage;
67 holders, 24 per cent; 159 owners, 7,^ per cent; and 558 holders,
approximately 50 per cent. The sixty-seven largest interests
control 39 per cent of the longleaf, 19 per cent of the loblolly
and shortleaf, 29 per cent of the cypress and 11 per cent of the
hardwood stumpage. It has been estimated^ that only 1.200,000
acres of yellow pine, containing 18,000,000,000 feet are not held
by manufacturers.
In the Lake States, six interests control 54 per cent of the
white and Norway pine stumpage, 16 per cent of other conifers
and 2 per cent of the hardwoods, and thirty-three interests con-
trol 77 per cent of the white and Norway pine.
The detailed holdings in these three sections are shown on
page 543 in the Appendix.
The timber in other regions is divided among many owners,
controlling a limited acreage. Few holdings in the Northeast
aggregate more than 100,000 acres.
COMMERCIAL SPECIES
Douglas Fir. — This species {Pseudotsuga taxifolia) is the most
important lumber producer on the Pacific Coast and will un-
doubtedly surpass yellow pine in annual production during the
^ Estimate by James D. Lacey and Co., Chicago, Illinois. See The American
Lumber Industry, Oflicial Report Tenth Annual Convention National Lumber
Manufacturers' Association, May 7 and 8, 191 2, p. 94.
6 LOGGING
next decade. The largest manufacturing plants are located on
Puget Sound, the Columbia River, and harbors along the Pacific
Coast. A large part of the log supply for these mills is floated
to market. Great waste, both in the forest and at the mill,
characterizes its manufacture. The home market for low grades
is limited and the cost of rail transportation across the moun-
tains to the central and eastern part of the United States is
prohibitive, except for the best grades; consequently much good
material is left in the forest to rot, or is consumed in the refuse
burner at the mill. The increased water transport faciUties
and the cheaper freight rate that will be provided by the Panama
canal should be a great stimulus to the closer utilization of this
species. The better grades of lumber are exported extensively
to Asia, the South Sea Islands and the western coast of South
America. Only small quantities find their way to Europe.
Douglas fir grows in dense, almost pure stands in the Pacific
Coast region ^delding an average of 35,00c to 60,000 feet of
merchantable timber per acre, with 150,000 to 250,000 feet on
the better stands. Single trees have scaled 60,000 feet. The
maximum yield per acre of Douglas fir so far reported was
585,000 feet. This timber grew on the north shore of Puget
Sound.
The cut of Douglas fir in 1910 was 5,203,644,000 board feet.
Stumpage has increased in price rapidly during recent years,
and large areas are now held by non-operating concerns as in-
vestments. Timber could be purchased in 1892 for 10 to 30
cents per thousand feet but is now held at from $2.00 to $3.50
per thousand feet, the price depending on the location and the
quaHty of the timber. During the last two years a number of
sales have been made on the National Forests at approximately
$3.00 per thousand feet.
SoutJiem Yellow Pine. — There are three species of yellow pine
of primary commercial importance found in the southern region;
namely, longleaf {Pinus palnstris), shortleaf (P. echinata) and
loblolly {P. tceda). The lumber manufactured from them is
often marketed under the trade name of yellow pine, although
it is customary for manufacturers in a longleaf region to sell all
FOREST RESOURCES 7
species under the name of "longleaf," while in parts of Arkansas
and Louisiana loblolly is marketed as "soft shortleaf." In the
Coastal Plain region of Virginia and the CaroKnas where loblolly
predominates the product is sold under the trade name of "North
Carolina Pine." In some of the large eastern markets Hke New
York and Philadelphia yellow pine is often sold under the trade
name of "longleaf," or of "shortleaf," the distinction being based
on the physical character of the wood. The term longleaf is
applied to timbers and lumber having narrow annual rings,
while coarse-grained lumber is called shortleaf.
Longleaf is considered preferable for timbers, flooring and
places where the maximum strength or wearing quality is de-
sired, while loblolly and shortleaf are regarded with favor for
finish and general construction purposes.
The annual production of yellow pine has probably reached
its maximum, but a marked decrease is not likely for a few years
because many operators will increase their output when other
mills shut down because of the exhaustion of their stumpage.
Operators estimate that most of the largest mills will be cut out
during the next fifteen years.
The yellow pine forests are now the source of most of the
lumber utihzed in the South, and in the prairie regions of the
Middle West. Their products are also shipped in large quantities
to New England, Canada, nearly all countries of Europe and to
many parts 8f eastern South America. They are also the chief
source of the railroad lumber suppHes of the East and South.
The longleaf forests have for many years been the chief source
of the world's supply of naval stores.
The manufacture of by-products, such as pulp, and products
of distillation from mill-waste and forest-refuse is growing in
importance and promises soon to become an important industry.
Longleaf grows largely in pure stands which run from 5000
to 40,000 feet per acre; shortleaf which seldom exceeds 6000
feet per acre occurs with hardwoods on richer soils; virgin
loblolly in southern Arkansas is associated with shortleaf in
nearly pure pine forests ranging from 5000 to 30,000 feet per
acre, the former comprising from 60 to 80 per cent of the total
8 LOGGING
Stand. The average stand over large areas does not exceed
10,000 feet. In the Coastal Plain region the second-growth
forests of loblolly average from 5000 to 6000 feet per acre with
a maximum of 15,000 feet. The choicest longleaf stumpage is
found in Calcasieu Parish in southwestern Louisiana, where
it commands a higher price than in any other part of the
South.
The lumber cut in 191 1 was 12,896,706,000 board feet.
Logging has become more intensive during recent years and
loggers get from three to five times more timber per acre than
formerly. In Louisiana the values show an increase from $3.00
per acre in 1897 to $75 in 1911,^ and in Virginia "timber rights"^
show an increase from 40 cents per thousand feet in 1897 to
$2.96 in 1908. A table of southern yellow pine stumpage values
is given on page 541 in the Appendix.
Western Yellow Pine. — Western yellow pine {Pinus pon-
derosa) is one of the more important merchantable species in the
Rocky Mountain region. Its market is largely confined to the
territory in which it grows and its chief uses are for general
construction purposes and mining timbers.
The stand in the Sierras, where it grows in mixture with sugar
pine, Douglas fir, incense cedar and firs, ranges from 2000 to
22,000 feet per acre with an average of about 8000 feet. In
Arizona and New Mexico it ranges from 3500 to 15,000 feet per
acre. Maximum stands of 40,000 feet per acre have been
reported.
The cut of western yellow pine for 1910 was 1,562,106,000
board feet.
Stumpage values per thousand feet for western yellow pine
have been approximately as follows:
1906, Sierras, California $2.00 to 2.50
1908, Plumas National Forest 2 . 50 to 4.00
igio, Crook National Forest 360
1910, Crater National Forest 3- 15
191 2, Manitou Park Reserve, Colorado. . . 4.00 to 5.00
^ The American Lumber Industry. Official Report Tenth Annual Convention
National Manufacturers' Association, 191 2. P. 89.
^ American Lumberman, Chicago, Illinois, Feb. 18, 191 1, p. 40.
FOREST RESOURCES 9
White Pine. — White pine {Pinus strohus) is of less importance
in our lumber markets than formerly. Its manufacture is now
chiefly confined to the state of Minnesota which contains the
greater part of the remaining stumpage, estimated at 75,000,000,-
000 feet.
Intensive utilization is practiced, because of the high value
of the lumber and the extensive demand for box board material
for which this species is especially adapted.
The virgin stands of white pine in Michigan averaged from
10,000 to 75,000 feet per acre, although a yield of 25,000 feet
was considered good.
The cut of eastern white pine is decreasing each year, the
records for 1910 showing a total of 3,119,741,000 board feet.
Stumpage shows a very marked increase in value during the
last thirty-nine years. Michigan white pine lands were sold in
1866 for $1.00 and $1.25 per acre, while in 1905 the stumpage
ranged from $10 to $20 per thousand feet. A list of values for
the years 1866 to 191 1 in the Lake States is given on pages
539 and 540 of the Appendix.
Western white pine {Pinus monticola) grows in Idaho, Mon-
tana and Washington and is now being substituted in the mar-
kets for eastern white pine. This timber is sold largely outside
of the home territory, because Douglas fir and other woods can
undersell it in the local markets.
The tree rarely occurs in pure stands, but is associated with
western larch {Larix occidentalis) , western red cedar {Thuja
plicata) and other firs {Abies sp.). It reaches its best develop-
ment in Idaho, where in mixed stands of the above species
ranging from 25,000 to 70,000 feet per acre it comprises from 60
to 70 per cent of the total. i\n occasional acre contains 130,000
feet. A single tree has yielded 29,800 board feet of lumber.
The amount of standing timber has not been reported.
The lumber cut in 1910 was 248,435,000 board feet.
Stumpage values now range from $3.00 to $4,50 per thousand
feet.
Hemlock. — There are two species now on the market known
as the eastern hemlock {Tsuga canadensis) and the western
hemlock {T. heterophylla).
lO ■ LOGGING
It is only within the last twenty years that eastern hemlock
has been regarded as of much value except for its bark, and even
to-day the latter commands as high a price as the timber, which
is knotty and inclined to be brashy and shaky.
Hemlock grows either in pure forests or associated with other
conifers. In Pennsylvania the best pure stands run as high as
15.000 feet per acre. The average in northern Michigan is
9000 feet. In West Virginia, where hemlock occurs in a mixed
forest, the average is from 2000 to 3000 feet per acre. The
heaviest stands in the Appalachians range between 25,000 and
40,000 feet per acre.
The lumber cut in 1910 was approximately 2,669,424,000 feet.
As late as 1897, hemlock was regarded of little value in Michi-
gan and Wisconsin, and could often be secured for taxes. In
1900 the stumpage price was about 50 cents per thousand feet,
while to-day the value ranges from $4 to $7 per thousand feet.
The western hemlock grows in the Pacific Coast forests, asso-
ciated chiefly with Douglas fir and western red cedar. The lum-
ber is not regarded with favor, although it is superior to that of
eastern hemlock. The bark is richer in tannin but it is not used
extensively, because there are not many tanning establishments
in the region and extract plants have not been developed because
high freight rates to eastern points limit the available market.
The timber is used for general construction purposes and, to a
limited extent in Oregon, for the manufacture of paper pulp.
The yield per acre ranges from 7000 to 30,000 board feet.
The lumber cut for 19 10 was approximately 166,705,000 feet.
Some records of the value of western hemlock stumpage are
as follows:
1902^ Si -oo
19062 0.47
1909 I ■ 50
Redwood. — The redwood {Sequoia sejnpervirens) is confined to
a narrow belt from 10 to 30 miles wide near the Pacific Coast,
1 Allen, Edward T. : The Western Hemlock. U. S. Bureau of Forestry, Bulle-
tin No. 33, 1902, p. 28.
2 Sale of Idaho school lands.
FOREST RESOURCES II
extending southward from southern Oregon to San Luis Obispo
County in CaHfornia. It is associated with Douglas fir, tanbark
oak (Quercus densiflora), western red cedar and western hemlock.
The chief commercial stands are in Humboldt and Del Norte
counties in the northern part of California.
The average yield per acre is from 60,000 to 75,000 feet,
although 100,000 feet per acre is not uncommon. Single acres
are said to have yielded 1,500,000 feet of sawed lumber, and
individual trees have contained 480,000 feet log scale of mer-
chantable timber. The highest stand so far reported is 2,500,000
feet per acre, but the yield in merchantable material was re-
duced 40 per cent through breakage and other losses. The
waste in logging redwood is enormous, because of the massive
size of the trees and the brittle character of the timber.
The trees average 6 or 7 feet in diameter, although from 10
to 14 feet is not uncommon, with a maximum of about 20 feet.
The clear length ranges from 100 to 200 feet.
The lumber is manufactured in mills located near the forest,
hauled by rail to the coast, and shipped by water to distributing
points or to market. It is sold along the Pacific Coast, in the
Far East, and some high grade lumber is marketed in the central
and eastern part of the United States. It furnishes wide boards
of excellent quahty for panels and interior finish. In the West
it is used extensively for tanks, flume boxes, house construction,
fence posts, shingles and shakes.
The lumber cut^ in 19 10 was approximately 543,493,000 feet.
There is very little redwood stumpage on the market, because
the greater part of the timber is held by companies which are
now exploiting it. The stumpage in 1890 was held at about
80 cents per thousand feet but is now valued at from $2.50 to
$3.50, with a maximum of $5 per thousand feet.
Cypress. — The commercial range of express (Taxodium
distichum) is confined to a narrow strip of swampy land extend-
ing along the Atlantic seaboard from North Carohna to Florida,
along the Gulf Coast in Florida, Louisiana and western Missis-
sippi, and up the Mississippi River to southern Arkansas.
^ This includes the cut of the bigtree {Sequoia Washiiigloiiia).
12 LOGGING
The average stands range from 5000 to 8000 feet per acre,
the better ones containing from 15,000 to 20,000 feet while an
occasional acre in Louisiana reaches a maximum of 100,000
feet.
It has been stated that at least one-third of the standing
express is affected with a fungous disease, which causes holes
in the wood from one-quarter inch to an inch wide and often
several inches long. Timber so affected is called "pecky" or
''pegg>'" express. The disease is caused by a species of Daedalia
which also affects the incense cedar of the Pacific Coast. Decay
stops as soon as the tree is cut and manufactured into lumber.
C}press timber on knolls just above the level of the water is
usually unsound and the trees are fewer in number than on the
wet lands. Sound timber occurs in patches in the forest with-
out apparent regularity. It is difficult to distinguish pecky trees
before they are cut. The trees in the Atchafalaya River basin
are of larger size and less defective than those in the Mississippi
bottoms.
Cypress is a highly durable wood and is especially esteemed
for greenhouse construction, certain forms of cooperage, silos,
tanks, shingles, interior and exterior finish for buildings, and all
purposes where resistance to decay is important.
The lumber cut in 1910 was approximately 935,659,000 feet.
It is a swamp species wherever it occurs in commercial quan-
tities and its exploitation presents numerous problems not found
in dry'-land logging; therefore, cypress logging for many years
was difficult, and in some localities was regarded as impossible;
consequently the stumpage was not valuable. It is said that
timber could be bought as late as 1876 for 25 cents per thousand
feet. A sale of a tract averaging 10,000 feet per acre was made
in 1880 at 75 cents per acre. In 1890, stumpage could be pur-
chased for 40 cents per thousand feet and a sale was made in
1894 for $5.25 per acre. There is very Httle cypress stumpage
on the market to-day, because it is largely in the hands of opera-
tors. The present prices range from $5 to $5.50 per thousand
feet. The increase in value is due to improved methods of
power logging.
FOREST RESOURCES
13
Eastern Spruces. — There are three species which are found
chiefly in Maine, northern New Hampshire, Vermont, New York,
West Virginia and North CaroHna. They are the white spruce
{Picea canadensis), red spruce {P. rubra) and the black spruce
{P. mariana). The present stand is estimated at 50,000,000,000
feet, four-fifths of which is in New England and New York.
Spruce occurs in pure stands on the higher elevations, and in
mixture with beech, birch, hard maple and eastern hemlock on
the lower elevations. It reaches its best form in the mountains
of West Virginia at an elevation of from 3000 to 4600 feet. Bal-
sam fir {A hies halsamea) is associated with spruce in the northern
part of its range and is now marketed with it for pulp wood,
without distinction as to price.
Spruce is one of the most valuable species for the production
of paper pulp and several million cords of Canadian and domestic
spruce are consumed annually for this purpose. In addition it
is used for house timbers, clapboards and general construction
purposes. The chief home markets are in New England and
the Northern tide-water ports.
The following shows the approximate stands in the various
states:
Stands per acre.
Average.
Maximum.
New York
Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont :
West Virginia
Board feet.
2,000- 3,000
3,000- 4,000
3,000- 4,000
3,000- 4,000
6,000-10,000
Board feet.
15,000
15,000-20,000
40,000
15,000
60,000
The cut of lumber in 1910 was 1,162,931,000 feet.
Spruce pulp wood stumpage in northern New York is held at
from $3.50 to $4 per cord and saw logs at from $1.50 to $2 per
standard for well-located timber. Saw timber in New Hamp-
shire is held at from $5.50 to $6 per thousand feet, pulp wood in
Maine at from $4 to $4.50 per cord, and saw-log timber in West
Virginia at from $4 to $5 per thousand feet.
14 LOGGING
Western Cedars. — The cedars of the Pacific Coast which are
of the greatest commercial importance are the western red cedar
(Thuya plicata), the yellow cypress (ChamcBcy parts nootkatensis) ,
Port Orford cedar (C lawsoniana) and the incense cedar {Libo-
cedriis decurrens).
Western red cedar is the most important shingle wood in the
United States, and is also cut extensively for telephone and
telegraph poles. When cut into lumber it is used for car siding
and roofing, weather-boarding, pattern-making, boat building,
cabinet manufacture and a variety of other purposes where
strength is not required.
It seldom occurs in pure stands, but is associated with Douglas
fir, western hemlock, western larch (Larix occidentalis) , the
several firs and redwood. The average stand per acre over
large areas is from 9000 to 10,000 feet, with maximum stands
of 40,000 feet.
Stumpage on Puget Sound is worth from Si. 50 to S2 per cord,
and saw timber from S3 to $4 per thousand feet. On a five-
year sale (1907-1912) made on the Kaniksu National Forest,
cedar poles brought i^ cents per running foot, and saw timber
$2 per thousand.
Yellow c^^ress, which is less widely known in the market, is
used for boat building, cabinet work, cigar boxes, lead pencils
and interior finish.
It is associated with Sitka spruce {Picea sitchensis), western
hemlock, and other species of minor importance. It occurs
singly, or in small groups, and in Alaska runs from 500 to 2500
feet per acre. Single acres are said to contain 40,000 feet. The
stumpage value ranges from $1 to $10 per thousand.
Port Orford cedar is limited in amount and is not marketed
extensively. It is a favorite wood for ship building, and is also
used for interior finish, outside trim, match wood and cabinet
work for which it is especially fitted. It is usually associated
with western red cedar, Sitka spruce, western hemlock and
Douglas fir. It occurs as single trees, rarely in groups. Sales
of private stumpage to small loggers have brought from $3.50
to $4 per thousand.
FOREST RESOURCES 1 5
Incense cedar is not cut into lumber to any extent, because
of the excessive taper of the bole, and also because a large per-
centage of the timber is attacked by a fungus (Dcedalia vorax)
which excavates galleries throughout the wood similar in char-
acter to the ''peck" in cypress. The timber is used chiefly for
fence posts, laths, shingles, cigar boxes, pencil stock, and the
best grade lumber for furniture and for mining and irrigation
flumes.
It is associated with western yellow pine, sugar pine, Douglas
fir, western white pine and white fir {Abies concolor). The stand
per acre in California ranges from 500 to 2000 board feet per
acre. The stumpage value ranges from $2 to S3 per thousand
feet.
The lumber cut of western cedars in 19 10 was approximately
288,587,000 feet of lumber and 9,167,000,000 shingles.
Sugar Pine. — Sugar pine {Finns lambertiana) is found chiefly
in southern Oregon and in California where it is an important
commercial tree. It never occurs in pure stands but is found
associated with western yellow pine, incense cedar and Douglas
fir on the lower limits of its range; and with white fir, red fir
{Abies magnifica) and the bigtree on the higher elevations. The
yield in the Sierras ranges from 2000 to 15,000 feet per acre
with a maximum of 60,000 feet. An occasional tree contains
54,000 feet.
Sugar pine is especially prized for the manufacture of " shakes "
or split shingles, and is also extensively used for fruit boxes,
match wood, sashes, doors and blinds, ship decking and interior
trim. The lumber is often substituted for that of eastern white
pine. The greater part is marketed locally, but it is also shipped
as far East as New England.
The cut in 1910 was 103,165,000 feet. The bulk of the re-
maining stumpage is in the Sierras in California and ranges in
value from $2.50 to $4 per thousand feet.
Lodgepole Pine. — - This tree {Pinus contorta) is found from
Alaska to CaUfornia and east to Colorado, and is used for mine
timbers, fence posts, lumber and crossties. The timber is small
and knotty and lumber sawed from it is suitable only for general
i6
LOGGING
construction purposes. It is not in demand for interior finish
except in the vicinity of the region where it is manufactured.
Lodgepole pine often occurs in dense pure stands in the
Sierras. At high elevations it is frequently associated with
Douglas fir, alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and other firs.
YIELD PER ACRE IX BOARD FEET, GALLATIN COUNTY,
MONTANA 1
(Cutting to a diameter breast high of ll inches.)
Type.
Lodgepole pine.
Creek
Board feet.
5900
7200
3800
7000
1
Eastern Slope
Western Slope
Northern Slope
YIELD PER ACRE IN BOARD FEET, MEDICINE BOW
NATIONAL FOREST, WYOMING 1
(Cutting to a diameter breast high of il inches.)
Type.
Pine forest:
Quality I...
Quality II . ,
Quality III.
Spruce forest.
Average for tract .
Lodgepole pine.
Ties,
6 inches by
8 inches by
8 feet.
Number.
•200
130
SO
• 55
108
Props.
Linear feet.
IIOO
600
240
230
nOO
Lumber.
Board feet.
3000
IIOO
550
700
HOC
Spruce
lumber.
Board feet.
1000
200
60
4700
^OO
1 From Forest Tables — Lodgepole Pine. Circular 126, U. S. Forest Service, 1907, pp. 2.3-24.
Lodgepole in pure stands ranges between 4000 and 30,000 feet
per acre, the average over large areas being about 8000 feet.
The cut in igio was 26,634,000 board feet.
The stumpage ^'alue on National Forests ranges from $1.50 to
$2. 50 per thousand board feet.
Western Spruce. — The spruces of importance in the western
part of the United States are the Engelmann spruce (Picea
enpelmanni) and the Sitka spruce.
FOREST RESOURCES 17
Engelmann spruce, which is of the greater importance com-
mercially, grows at high altitudes often in pure forests. It is
frequently associated with alpine fir, western larch, lodgepole
pine and western yellow pine.
The timber is sawed into limiber and dimension stock for
local construction purposes.
On moist flats and along streams Engelmann spruce and lodge-
pole pine form stands of from 40,000 to 50,000 feet. On the
Pike National Forest the maximum stands are 35,000 feet and
the average stands 5000 feet. In the Sopris National Forest
in Colorado, the stands of Engelmann spruce and associated
species range from 4000 to 20,000 feet per acre, of which the
former constitutes from 35 to 75 per cent. The stumpage value
ranges from $2 to $3.50 per thousand feet.
Sitka spruce is the chief commercial species of Alaska. It is
seldom found in pure stands, except on areas of from i to 3 acres
on which the stand ranges from 10,000 to 90,000 feet per acre.
Individual trees have been reported which contain 25,000 feet.
On the lower elevations, which are the only places it grows to
commercial size, it is usually associated with western hemlock,
western red cedar and yellow cypress.
In Alaska it is used chiefly for box shooks for the salmon
industry and for building material.
The stumpage value on the Tongass National Forest is about
$1 per thousand feet.
The lumber cut of western spruce in 19 10 was approximately
286,981,000 feet, the greater part of which came from Washing-
ton.
Other Conifers. — Among the conifers cut in small quantities
are the eastern larch (Larix americana), now often sold with
Norway and white pine, and also made into crossties, posts and
poles; the western larch (L. occidentalis) , manufactured into
dimension lumber, ties and posts; eastern red cedar {Juniperus
virginiana) , used chiefly for pencil wood, posts and poles ; and a
number of pines found in the western part of the country which
are of local importance only.
LOGGING
HARDWOODS
The hardwood forests extend south from northern New York
through the Appalachian Mountains and from central Wis-
consin and Michigan through the valleys of the Mississippi and
Ohio rivers to central Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama, and
west to the Great Plains. The chief commercial species are the
oaks, sugar maple, yellow poplar, red gum, chestnut, beech,
birch, basswood, hickory, elm, ash and cottonwood.
The lumber cut in 1910 of the above hardwoods was 8,615,-
000,000 feet or 21.5 per cent of the total lumber cut of the
country.
Yellow Poplar. — Among the more valuable hardwoods is the
yellow poplar {Liriodendron tulipifera) which occurs, chiefly, in
the rich hardwood forests of Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee,
North Carolina and Kentucky. It is used chiefly for weather-
boarding, interior finish, furniture, bodies of automobiles and
carriages, wagon boxes, woodenware, box boards and paper
pulp. Wide boards command a high price for panels and
shelving.
The average stand per acre is seldom more than 2000 feet.
The timber in Kentucky and Tennessee in 1890 was held at
60 cents per thousand feet but it now commands a stumpage
price of from $8 to $12 per thousand feet.
The cut in 1910 was 734,926,000 board feet.
Oaks. — White oak (Quercus alba) is the most valuable of the
numerous oaks and the best timber comes from the Appalachian
region. The wood is used principally for high grade furniture,
cooperage stock, car frame material, flooring, interior finish,
agricultural implements, and crossties for railroads.
Several species belonging to the white oak group are now
marketed as white oak, although but few show the fine radial
markings of Quercus alba. White oak stumpage values range
between $6 and $12 per thousand feet.
The red and black oaks are indigenous to the same region as
the white oaks and are now used extensively for cooperage,
interior finish, car frame material, furniture and many other
FOREST RESOURCES 19
uses where strength is desirable. They are not as durable as
the white oaks but large quantities are treated with chemical
preservatives and used for crossties.
The stumpage is valued at from $3 to $6 per thousand.
The cut of oak lumber of all kinds in 191 1 was 3,098,444,000
feet.
Maple. — Lumber is manufactured from several species,
namely, the hard maple {Acer saccharum), the black maple {A.
nigrum), the red maple (A. rubrum), the silver maple {A. sac-
charinum) and the Oregon maple {A . macro phylhum) . The hard
and the black maples produce the most valuable lumber, which
is cut chiefly in Pennsylvania, the Lake States, New York, West
Virginia, Ohio, Indiana and some of the southern and New
England States. The lumber is prized for flooring and furniture
and is also used for woodenware and gunstocks. Large quan-
tities of the rough wood are utilized in destructive distillation.
The lumber cut of maple in 1910 was 1,006,637,000 feet.
Maple stumpage in New York is valued at from $2.50 to $5
per thousand feet; in Michigan from $5 to $8 per thousand
feet; and in Indiana from $6 to $8 per thousand feet.
Red Gum. — The red gum {Liquidambar styracijiua) is largely
a tree of the lowlands and is found in the best form and in the
heaviest stands along the Mississippi River bottoms in Arkansas,
Mississippi, Missouri, Tennessee and Kentucky.
Virgin bottom lands in Missouri contain about 5500 feet per
acre of merchantable timber and in South CaroHna 4000 feet.
Second-growth bottom land in the latter state runs as high as
13,000 feet per acre. The maximum stands in the Mississippi
River bottoms seldom exceed 15,000 feet.
Red gum has only recently been an important factor in the
hardwood market because the wood warps badly in seasoning.
Improved methods of handling and the scarcity of other species
have greatly increased its use, and it is now employed extensively
for furniture, tobacco boxes, fruit packages, and slack cooperage.
The lumber cut in 1910 was 610,208,000 feet.
Stumpage values in the South range from $1 to $2.50, and in
Indiana from $5 to $8 per thousand feet.
20 LOGGING
Chestnut. — Chestnut {Castanea dentata) is widely distributed
over the Central hardwood region, although nearly 50 per cent
of the entire product is manufactured in West Virginia, Penn-
sylvania and Virginia. The wood is extensively used for furni-
ture, interior finish, shingles, fencing, telephone poles, veneer
backing, slack cooperage and for the production of tannin
extract.
Chestnut grows in mixed forests of oak and other hardwoods
but the sprout forests are largely pure.
The stand per acre is extremely variable, but averages from
2000 to 6000 feet. Chestnut stumpage ranges from S3 to S5
per thousand feet in the Appalachian region and from S5 to S7
per thousand feet in the sprout forests of Connecticut.
During the year 1910, 535,049,000 feet of lumber and 52,-
091,000 shingles were manufactured from this species.
Beech. — Beech (Fagus americana) is found chiefly in the
northern and Appalachian forests associated with maple and
birch, but the center of beech lumber production is in Michigan,
Indiana and Pennsylvania.
The chief uses of beech are for tool handles, clothes pins,
flooring, slack cooperage, veneers and woodenware. Large
quantities of rough wood are used for the production of wood
alcohol and other products of distillation.
The lumber cut in 1910 was 437.325.000 feet.
Stumpage values in northern Xew York and at points in the
South range from $2 to $3.50 per thousand feet; in Michigan
from $3 to $5 per thousand feet; and in the Middle West from
$6 to $10 per thousand feet.
Birch. — The commercial distribution of birch is largely con-
fined to the states of Wisconsin, ^Michigan and Maine and is
associated chiefly with maple and beech, in stands running from
3000 to 8000 feet per acre. Paper birch {Betula papyrifera) in
Maine averages about two cords per acre, with a maximum of
fifty cords per acre.
The yellow birch {B. luted) and sweet birch {B. lento) are used
largely for furniture, vehicle hubs, tool handles, flooring, interior
finish, veneers, cooperage, spool stock and novelties. The paper
FOREST RESOURCES 21
birch of Maine is used chiefly for spool stock, shoe pegs and
shanks, toothpicks and novelty work.
The lumber cut of birch in 1910 was 420,769,000 feet, of which
the paper birch comprised 32,000,000 feet.
Yellow birch stumpage in northern New York is valued at
from $4 to $6 per thousand feet with somewhat higher values
in the Lake States. Paper birch in Maine is valued at from 75
cents to $2 per cord, the average being $1.50.
Basswood. — This tree {Tilia americana) is associated with
hemlock and other hardwoods in the northern and Appalachian
forests. It is manufactured extensively into siding, rotary-cut
veneer, car lining, heading, excelsior, baskets, slack cooperage,
furniture backs, carriage bodies, pulpwood, etc. Although not
durable it is one of the more valuable hardwoods because of its
light weight, and the odorless character of the wood.
The lumber cut in 1910 was 344,704,000 feet. The chief
center of manufacture is Wisconsin where nearly 40 per cent of
the total output is produced.
Stumpage values range from $5 to $7 per thousand feet for
well-located timber.
Hickory. — The present commercial stands of hickory are
found in the Appalachian and the Mississippi River regions.
There are four species of commercial importance, namely, the
big shellbark {Hicoria laciniosa), the shagbark {H. ovata), the
pignut (H. glabra) and the mockernut {H. alba). The strongest
and toughest one is the pignut, although the shagbark is but
sKghtly inferior to it. The big shellbark is of medium quality
only, while the mockernut is lacking in toughness, although it
is strong.
The manufacture of hickory lumber centers in Tennessee,
Arkansas, Kentucky and Missouri. These states now produce
more than 50 per cent of the total cut.
Hickory occurs singly among other hardwoods. The stands
over large areas frequently range from 200 to 400 board feet
per acre.
About 65 per cent of the hickory cut is used for vehicle stock,
10 per cent for tool handles, 9 per cent for heavy wagons, 8 per
22 LOGGING
cent for agricultural implements, and the remainder for novelties
of various kinds. About 1,000,000 cords are used annually for
fuel. Saplings are sometimes split into barrel hoops, but this
practice is less common than formerly.
The lumber cut for 1910 was 272,252,000 feet.
Stumpage prices in the South range from $5 to $8 per thousand
feet; in northern Ohio from $15 to $25 per thousand feet; and
in eastern Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia from $15 to
$35 per thousand feet.
Elm. — There are three elms commercially important in the
United States, the rock elm {Ulmus racemosa), slippery or red
elm {U. puhescens) and the white elm {U . americana), all of
which grow in the rich bottom lands along streams. Over one-
half of the output is from the states of Wisconsin, Michigan and
Indiana. Elm wood is used for hubs, bicycle rims, slack cooper-
age, coiled hoops, basket splints, etc.
The cut in 1910 was over 265,107,000 feet.
Stumpage values in the South range from $3 to $5 and in
Indiana and the Middle West from $8 to $10 per thousand
feet.
Ash. — There are numerous species of ash in the United
States, but about 60 per cent of the lumber cut is white ash
{Fraxinus americana) , and 30 per cent black ash {F. nigra). The
greater part of the lumber output is manufactured in the states
bordering on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers and also in New
York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Vermont. Fully one-
half of the output is produced in Arkansas, Ohio, Wisconsin,
Kentucky, Indiana and Michigan.
It is in especial favor for poles and shafts of wagons and
carriages, sporting goods, agricultural implements, hoops and
staves for pork barrels, packages and tool handles.
The lumber cut for 1910 was 246,035,000 feet.
In the lower Mississippi bottoms the timber ranges from
2000 to 5000 feet per acre.
The stumpage values in Michigan in 1890 ranged from $1 to
$3.50 per thousand feet. To-day they are from $6 to $12 per
thousand feet.
FOREST RESOURCES 23
Cottonwood. — Several species {Populus sp.) are found in
abundance and of large size in the bottoms of the lower Mis-
sissippi River. The greater part of the annual production comes
from the states of Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi. It is
in demand for boxes, wood pulp, lining for refrigerator cars,
excelsior, woodenware and cheap furniture.
The cut in 1910 was 220,305,000 feet, which was the lowest
output in many years.
The stumpage in Mississippi is valued at from $1.50 to $3
per thousand feet and in Indiana at from $6 to $10.
Other Hardwoods. — There are many other hardwoods placed
on the market, among them tupelo or bay poplar {Nyssa aqiiat-
ica), which is manufactured into flooring, interior finish, plank-
ing, and box boards in Louisiana and other Southern States;
the cucumber tree {Magnolia acuminata) , sold largely as yellow
poplar; the buckeye {Msculus glabra), manufactured into pulp,
interior finish and woodenware; sycamore {Platanus occiden-
talis) , used for furniture and plug tobacco boxes ; black walnut
(Juglans nigra); cherry (Prunus serotina); and other valuable
cabinet woods. These timbers with the exception of tupelo
are common to the South Central and Appalachian regions and
are associated with the other hardwoods.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER I
Allen, E. T.: The Western Hemlock. Bui. No. ;^^, U. S. Bur. For., 1903.
Betts, H. S.: Properties and L^ses of Southern Pine. Cir. 164, U. S. Forest
Service, igog.
BoiSEX, Anton T., and Newlin, J. A.: The Commercial Hickories. Bui. 80,
U. S. For. Ser., 1910.
Chittenden, .\Ifred K., and Hatt, \V. Kendrick: The Red Gum. Bui. 58,
U. S. Bur. For., igo5.
Dana, S. T.: Paper Birch in the Northeast. Cir. 163, U. S. For. Ser., igog.
Fisher, Richard T.: The Redwood. Bui. No. 38, U. S. Bur. For., 1903.
Foster, H. D., and .\she, W. W. : Chestnut Oak in the Appalachians. Cir. 135,
U. S. For. Ser., 1907.
Frothingham, E. H. : Douglas Fir; .\ Study of the Pacific Coast and Rocky
Mountain Form. Cir. 150, U. S. For. Ser., 1909.
Frothingham, Earl H. : Second-growth Hardwoods in Connecticut. Bui. 96,
U. S. For. Ser., Washington, D. C, 1912, pp. 24-29.
24 LOGGING
Greeley, W. B., and Ashe, W. W.: White Oak in the Southern Appalachians.
Cir. 105, U. S. For. Ser., 1907.
Hall, WiUiam L., and Maxwell, Hu: Uses of Commercial Woods of the United
States; II. Pines. Bui. 99, U.S. For. Ser., 191 1.
: Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States; I. Cedars,
C>'presses and Sequoias, Bui. 95, U. S. For. Ser., 1911.
HoFFMAX, Bruce E. : Sitka Spruce of Alaska. Proc. of the Society of American
Foresters, Vol. Yll, No. 2, pp. 226-238.
' MoHR, Charles: The Timber Pines of the Southern United States. Bui.
No. 13, U. S. Div. of For., Washington, D. C, 1897.
Record, Samuel J. : Suggestions to Woodlot Owners in the Ohio Valley Region.
Cir. 138, U. S. For. Service, p. 9, Washington, D. C, 1908.
Sp.al-lding, V. M.: The White Pine. Bui. No. 22, U. S. Div. of For., Washing-
ton, D. C, 1899.
The Lumber Industry. Report of the Bureau of Corporations, Department
of Conmaerce and Labor. The American Lumberman, Chicago, Illinois,
February 18, 1911.
The American Lumber Industry. Official Report Tenth .\nnual ^Meeting
National Lumber Manufacturers Association. Chicago, Illinois, 1912.
CHAPTER II
PROTECTION OF FOREST PROPERTY
The two great enemies of the forest, fire and wind, have caused
the loss of billions of feet of timber. Fire has been the more
disastrous, some years destroying timber and other property
valued at millions of dollars. Although cut-over lands are
still largely neglected, forest-land owners now manifest interest
in the protection of their standing timber.
FIRES
The damage from fire is greatest in the coniferous forests of
the Northeast, the Lake States, the Inland Empire, and the
Pacific Coast, where the stand over large areas is sometimes
killed outright, and occasionally almost entirely consumed.
Among the most destructive fires are those which burn in
the crowns, leaping from tree to tree. These are difficult to
control because they often occur during high winds which fan
the flames and carry burning brands for long distances ahead of
the main conflagration.
Surface fires, which run along the ground and feed on the litter
and undergrowth, are less serious in their immediate results
but if the heat is intense they injure the bark and often kill the
cambium. The wounds provide excellent places for the en-
trance of fungi and insects which may render the tree of little
value in a few years. The degree of damage depends upon the
character and age of the stand. Trees which have thick bark
suffer less than the thin-barked species. In the yellow pine
region of the South, surface fires run through the forest at
frequent intervals, but are seldom hot enough to kill many of
the larger trees.
Ground fires are common in the northern forests where organic
matter accumulates on the forest floor, sometimes to a depth of
2S
26 LOGGING
several" feet, through which the roots ramify in all directions.
The vegetable mold burns slowly, but fires in it are difficult to
extinguish and ultimately the soil is consumed and the rocks
are exposed. The trees are killed and soon blow down, forming
an almost impenetrable slash and a dangerous fire trap. This
condition is most pronounced in the coniferous forests of the
Northeast, in the Lake States and also in the forests on the
Pacific Coast.
BRUSH DISPOSAL
The debris remaining after logging is a source of great danger
to standing timber because sparks from locomotives and station-
ary logging engines often ignite it, during the dry seasons, and
when once started fire may spread into the green timber.
Various states^ have passed laws dealing with the disposal
of slash, and private protective associations have also attacked
the problem with vigor. The first effective step toward its
solution was taken by the U. S. Forest Service when it assumed
charge of the National Forests.
The problems concerned with brush handling vary in different
forest regions, and even in a given region the proper method of
dealing with the situation must be studied for each operation.
In the yellow pine region of the Southwest where the rainfall
during a portion of the year is scanty, it often is advisable- only
to scatter the brush, for the shade afforded by it is conducive
to the germination of seed and is beneficial to reproduction.
Where it is desired to keep stock away from reproduction the
brush is also left undisturbed. If the fire risk is great, the
practice recommended by forest officers is to pile the brush
in open places and burn it at a period when the fire can be
controlled.
In the coniferous forests of New York, a state law provides
for lopping the tops and leaving them in situ. The weight of
the snow during the first winter forces the limbs close to the
' Among these are New York, Minnesota, Washington and Oregon.
2 Woolsey, Jr., Theodore S.: Western Yellow Pine in Arizona and New Mexico.
Bulletin loi, U. S. Forest Service, 191 1, pp. 53-54.
PROTECTION OF FOREST PROPERTY 27
ground and after three or four years decay largely eliminates the
danger from lire. Fires in lopped slash do not become as violent
as when the brush is left in the tops to dry out. The cost of
lopping in the spruce forests of the Adirondacks ranges from 10
to 15 cents per cord.
Brush burning is recommended for forests where the stand
of timber is heavy and the brush dense. These conditions exist
in parts of the Lake States, Inland Empire and' on the Pacific
Coast. The practice is either to pile and burn, or to burn broad-
cast. Brush can be burned with safety during the wet periods
in the spring and fall, after a light fall of snow in the early winter,
and in the South during the summer after hea\y rains.
Where the aim is to save the seedlings and young timber,
brush should be piled and burned. This can be done cheapest
at the time of logging because less labor is required for the work,
and the removal of the slash facilitates skidding and reduces its
cost. In white pine where the brush is dense, the saving in
logging expense may be greater than the added cost due to slash
burning. As a rule one extra man is required for each 10,000 to
12,000 feet logged. Many lumbermen in the Lake States and
the Inland Empire do not log extensively during the danger
period in the summer months and hence the above method may
be employed to advantage during the greater part of the logging
season.
The method followed where brush is disposed of at the time
of logging is for the swampers of each skidding crew to select
suitable spots where brush can be piled and burned without
danger to standing trees and reproduction and where it will not
inconvenience the skidding teams. These piles should not be
placed nearer than 15 feet to any standing tree. One or more
fires are started and the brush as cut is thrown on the nearest
blaze. Brush can be burned even during rainy weather and
where there is quite a heavy snow, because the latter is shaken
off the branches in handling. Studies made by the U. S. Forest
Service in Minnesota show that not over 2 per cent of the total
acreage of a given operation is burned over when this method
is employed.
28 LOGGING
Piling and burning brush after logging has not proved as
satisf actor}' as the above method, because of the added labor
charge. It has some advantages because the piles can be built
in the roadways and on skidway sites where there is no timber
or reproduction to damage.
In the Minnesota National Forest brush was piled after
logging and burned on calm days when the ground was damp.
Burning commenced on the leeward side of the cutting. The
fires were started in alternate piles in the same row, which left
a cold air space between them, lessened the draft and reduced
the danger of damage to seedlings and standing timber. When
these piles were reduced to embers the alternate ones in the
same row were fired. Each successive row was burned in this
manner. A sufficient force of workers equipped with fire-fighting
apparatus was kept on hand to hold the fixes in check. The
area burned over by this method was 7 per cent of the total.
A contractor in ^Minnesota states that in stands composed of
equal parts of white pine and Norway pine he has burned brush
for 20 cents per thousand during open winters, and 35 cents per
thousand during severe winters. The average cost in the region
is from 20 to 25 cents per thousand feet.
Hardwood brush is more difficult to burn and costs from 30
to 40 cents per thousand feet in the Lake States when the brush
burned is less than 6 inches In diameter.
Broadcast burning is cheaper where protection is desired only
for logging equipment and green timber; where the area is clear
cut; and in yellow pine forests in the South, where timber is
left for a second cutting to be made in fifteen or twenty years.
Broadcast burning is the only feasible method in the Douglas
fir region because of the great quantities of slash that must be
handled. On areas where the stand runs as high as 100,000 feet
per acre, the debris is often 10 feet high. The method recom-
mended by a National Forest officer^ is to burn off at one time
areas of from 20 to 40 acres which are selected with reference to
topographic features. Burning should begin before large areas
1 Munger, Thornton T.: The Growth and ^Management of Douglas Fir in the
Pacific Northwest. Circular 175, U. S. Forest Service, 1911, pp. 17-18.
PROTECTION OF FOREST PROPERTY 29
are covered with slash. Back fires should be built around the
edge of the strip and around all seed trees.
Early fall burning is recommended because:
(i) Fire in stubs will soon be extinguished by rain.
(2) Some seed trees are liable to be killed and the forest will
secure the benefit of the seed crop if the area is burned before
the seeds fall.
(3) There will be no summer growth of weeds to check the
reproduction the following spring.
(4) On the higher elevations a clear burn cannot be secured
in the spring because of moisture conditions.
(5) The hottest fire can be secured in the fall because the
brush is then thoroughly dry.
The method recommended by the Chief Fire Warden of
Washington for preparing a slashing for broadcast burning con-
sists in felling all large stubs on a strip from 300 to 1000 feet wide
on the leeward side of the cutting. Stubs in the green timber are
also felled along this line for a distance of from 200 to 300 feet
back from the cut-over area, and if the fire danger is great a fire
trail is cut in the green timber about 50 feet back of the slashing.
The fire is usually started in the afternoon on the leeward side
and is allowed to burn back against the wind and toward the
center of the clearing. Men are stationed along the green
timber to prevent the fire from running into it. If the area is
large a fire is started in the center of the cut-over area from
three to four hours after the first and allowed to work to lee-
ward; Later a fire is started on the windward side and the
remainder of the area burned over.
Debris on steep slopes is burned from the top down to pre-
vent timber on the upper edge from being killed by the intense
heat which would result from a heavy fire running up the
slope.
In the southern pine region forestry is not practiced at present
but it is probable that some lumbermen will soon be interested
in logging their virgin timberlands so as to secure a second cut
in fifteen or twenty years. Brush disposal is necessary to assure
the success of a plan of this sort. Observations and experiments
30 LOGGING
made in different parts of the region, especially in Arkansas,
have demonstrated that broadcast burning offers sufficient pro-
tection to timber held for a second cut and can be carried on
safelv provided all slash is removed for a distance of lo feet from
the timber that is to be left. The slash can be handled by the
swampers and occasionally skidding teams can drag whole tops
bodily from the vicinity of trees without decreasing the daily
output of the skidding crew. The slash should be burned during
calm, damp periods, chiefly in the spring and fall, although it
may be done on occasional damp days during the hot summer
months. If a virgin forest is to be logged during the summer
months when broadcast burning cannot be done safely, the
practice should be to tire the ground litter in the early spring
and thus provide against ground fires running into the slash
during the danger season. The slash should then be burned
at the first favorable opportunity. The annual ground fires
which succeed the burning of the slash will seldom be sufficiently
violent to injure the trees held for the second cut, although
reproduction often will be killed.
SPARK ARRESTERS
Among the many spark arresters on the market, the following
are known to have given the best satisfaction on logging opera-
tions :
Sequoia Spark Arrester} — This arrester (Fig. 2) has a j-inch
mesh wire screen {A) which projects above a cinder pan {B)
attached to the stack. From the cinder pan outlet pipes (C)
lead to a receptacle below. A light metal deflector is fixed
inside the pan to guide the cinders to the outlet pipes. The
sparks arrested and deflected by the screen are dropped into the
recei\dng pan. This arrester is used chiefly for wood-burning
logging engines. Users claim that the engine exhaust will keep
the screen clean and that it does not interfere with the draft.
The device is light, and easily put on and removed. The list
prices range from $22.50 to $45 each.
^ Manufactured by the Willamette Iron and Steel Works, Portland, Oregon.
PROTECTION OF FOREST PROPERTY
31
^' :
^^
\
)
/
,
■que jr \
1
Fig. 2. — The Sequoia Spark Arrester.
Fig. 3. — The South Bend Spark Arrester, a, for logging engines; b, for logging
locomotives.
The South Bend Spark Arrester} — This type is used exten-
sively in the Northwest. The one shown in Fig. 3a is for logging
engines and that in Fig. 36, which is built larger and stronger, is
for logging locomotives.
1 Manufactured by the South Bend Spark Arrester Co., South Bend, Indiana.
32
LOGGING
It has a round tapering shell (A) of sheet metal, with an inner
wall; an outlet (B) at the side for the discharge of sparks and
cinders; and a sheet metal cover (C). A cone-shaped screen
(D) attached to the sheet iron cover hangs within the stack, apex
downward, and deflects the cinders into the spark receiver at
the head of the outlet pipes. The steam, smoke and gas escape
through the screen, in which the cinders do not clog because of
its conical form. The screen can be raised by means of the lever
lift (E) when it is unnecessary to use an arrester. The size of
arresters for locomotives is governed by the cylinder area, and
those for logging engines by the diameter and height of stack
used. The list price ranges from $io to S27 each.
Spark Caps. — A successful spark arrester,^ Fig. 4, in use by
a logging company in Pennsylvania consists of a j-inch mesh
Closed
Open
Fig. 4. — -A Locomotive Spark Cap.
wire cone-shaped spark cap, 24 inches high and 18 inches wide
at the base, where it is attached to a ring, which is hinged to
another ring in the top of the stack. When in position the cone
is fastened down on the stack by a hasp. When not in use the
arrester may be dropped by the side of the stack. During the
fall and winter the caps are removed and stored until the follow-
^ Described in Forestry Quarterly, Vol. IV, No. i, page 2.
PROTECTION OF FOREST PROPERTY
33
ing spring. Engineers who have used them state that they do
not interfere with the draft. The cost of manufacture in a rail-
road shop is about $3 each.
Boomerang Spark Arrester} — This is used by many loggers on
the Pacific Coast for coal-burning and wood-burning stationary
engines. The essential parts of the ar-
rester, Fig. 5, are a heavy |-inch hiesh
round screen (^4), sKghtly flaring toward
the top, on which is mounted a hea\y
sheet iron cone (B). The latter ends
in a boomerang (C) to the open end of
which a screen conveyor tube (D) is at-
tached. The smoke passes out through
the screen while the sparks travel
straight up through the steel cone
where they are diverted into the boom-
erang and led into a receptacle by the
side of the engine. As the sparks do
not come in contact with the sci;een it
does not become clogged. The prices
vary from $20 to $38 each according
to the size.
Radley-H miter Spark Arrester.- — This is an effective loco-
motive spark arrester which is used by many lumber companies,
especially in the West.
The smoke and exhaust pass up through the main smoke
chamber {A), Fig. 6, striking against a spiral cone {B) which gives
it a whirling motion, and the large cinders are thrown outward by
centrifugal force against the perforated screen plate (C). This
plate has openings in it large enough to permit the passage of
sparks into the spark chamber (£>). Once through this per-
forated screen plate they are beyond the line of active draft,
and by their weight fall into the cinder receptacle (G) from which
they are removed through the cleaning out holes (F). The
lighter sparks which are not thrown through the perforated
^ Manufactured b_v the Washington Iron Works, Seattle, Washington.
^ Manufactured by the Lima Locomotive and Machine Co., Lima, Ohio.
Fig. 5. — The Boomerang
Spark Arrester.
34
LOGGING
screen plate are carried by the draft against the fine netting (E) .
In firing up. the natural draft through (.4) around (B) and under
(E) is unobstructed by netting.
This has two advantages: (i) the
possibility of clogging is eliminated;
(2) there is an easy, free draft when
Starting the fire. This stack acts
as a centrifugal separator which
prevents the emission of the larger
and more dangerous sparks and
only allows the escape of small,
light sparks which are dead by the
time they leave the stack.
There are numerous other spark
arresters but those described are
Fig. 6.-TheRadley-Hunter ^he more common ones in use
Spark Arrester. among lumbermen.
FUEL OIL
Sparks from locomotives have proved such a menace to forest
property that in some states trunk fine railroads which pass
through forest regions are compelled to use fuel oil during the
danger season because the many devices used to prevent the
emission of live sparks from coal-burning and wood-burning
engines have not proved entirely satisfactory. Fuel oil is not
extensively used by loggers either for locomotives or for logging
engines. For a short period after the discovery of the Texas oil
fields many loggers in the cypress region of Louisiana fitted their
logging engines with oil burners because fuel could be purchased
cheap enough to reduce the expense of operation. A marked
increase in the cost of fuel oil has led many to return to the use
of coal or wood. Many loggers in the Inland Empire and the
Pacific Northwest now use fuel oil successfully in locomotives,
but so far no method for burning fuel oil in vertical boilers has
been de\'ised that is satisfactorv for all conditions.
PROTECTION OF FOREST PROPERTY 35
ELECTRIC DRIVE
Electric power for logging purposes will be used extensively
in the future wherever it can be developed cheaply. A number
of western firms are now experimenting with electrically-driven
yarding engines and although still in the experimental stage they
are giving good results.
PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATIONS
There are several associations^ of private timberland owners
organized in the Northeast, Lake States, Inland Empire and the
Far West, whose object is the prevention and control of forest
fires. These associations are composed of the largest timber-
land owners in a given region, whose problems of protection are
similar. Some are local in character, others include an entire
state, while one is interstate. During the fire season many of
these associations maintain a patrol system with lookout stations,
reserve tool stations, and approved devices for fire fighting.
They usually support a paid secretary who is manager of the
patrol force during the fire season and who also conducts educa-
tional campaigns in order to arouse public sentiment on the
forest fire question. Hearty cooperation between state, national
and private interests has been manifested from the first.
Associations are supported chiefly by an assessment of from
i|^ to 3 cents per acre. During 191 1 the Western associations
protected 954,000 acres at an average cost of i^ cents per acre.
No concerted efforts have been made by Southern operators,
because the loss of mature standing timber is not considered
great enough to warrant their interest.
^ Among the more important associations are: The New Hampshire Timberland
Owners Association, organized in December, 1910; the Northern Forest Protective
Association, covering the states of Michigan and Wisconsin, organized in Novem-
ber, 1910; the Washington Forest Fire Association; the Oregon Forest Fire
Association, organized in April, 1910; and the Western Forestr}' and Conservation
Association, organized in January, 1909, representing private timberland owners
in Washington, Idaho, Montana, Oregon and California. The object of the last
association is to work for laws which will assist lumbermen in preserving standing
timber from fire in public and private domains.
36 LOGGING
INSURANCE OF STANDING TIMBER
So far no standing timber in the United States has been
insured.
Since timber bonds have been on the market there has been a
demand on the part of investors for insurance protection but
no active steps have been taken toward meeting it. Forest fire
insurance will probably not be oft'ered by reUable companies at
a reasonable rate until better fire protection prevails and the
practice of forestry is widespread. A company would have to
carry a large amount of insurance scattered over a wide range
of conditions in order that heav^^ losses in a particular region
would not seriously embarrass it.
Even though some of the more prominent European companies
insure timberlands they do not regard such risks as especially
desirable. The Gladbach Fire Insurance Company of Munich
estabHshed a forest fire insurance department in 1895. I^s rates
are regulated by the age, species, character of stand and general
fire risk. On large, well-managed forest properties the premiums
vary from 4 marks to a minimum of 0.45 mark per 1000 marks
value, with an increase where the danger is great. The rate on
forest plantations and protection forests is adjusted for each
particular tract and the premiums often exceed 4 marks per
thousand. Only forests that have a definite form of manage-
ment and in which a sustained yield takes place are accepted
as risks and then for minimum periods of ten years. The in-
surance value of the property is preferably determined by an
expert appraiser, although the valuation of young timber may
be made by the owner from tables of cost furnished by the
company. In case of disagreement as to the basis of settlement
between insurer and insured, provision is made for a board of
referees whose judgment is final.
In case the property is over-insured, the company holds itself
liable only for the actual value. The poHcy contains various
clauses regarding the obKgations of the insured to exercise due
care in preventing fires, the use of steam engines in the forest,
brush burning, etc.
PROTECTION OF FOREST PROPERTY 37
An announcement^ has been made recently of the organization
of a mutual forest lire insurance company in Sweden, which
marks a new departure in European forest lire insurance. A
minimum premium is fixed and the highest risk taken is 75 per
cent of the forest value. The latter may be based on the owner's
estimate, or determined by an expert hired by the insurer at the
expense of the insured. The damage is appraised by referees
representing both the association and the insured, with final
resort to the courts in case of disagreement.
The only lire insurance policy on timber on this continent
was issued in 1910 by Lloyd's, London, to Price Brothers Com-
pany, Ltd., of Quebec, Canada, as additional protection for a
bond issue of $5,000,000 which they wished to float. The basis
on which the poHcy was issued was the division of the area
insured into blocks of approximately 300 square miles, the
boundaries of which were natural barriers such as rivers or
mountain ranges. The average value of the property per square
mile was determined by estimate, and the policy contains a clause
that the insured must bear all the loss up to $75,000 in a given
block. The underwriters' HabiHty in a given block was limited
to $250,000. The premium rate was 0.25 of one per cent of the
total value of the property.
WIND DAMAGE
The zone of greatest damage from wind is in the yellow pine
region of the South in the vicinity of the Gulf of Mexico. Many
heavy storms have passed through various sections in this region
destroying millions of feet of timber. In September, 1909,
over one-half biUion feet was blown down, some of which was
manufactured, while large areas could not be logged in time to
save the timber from insect attacks. These storms are espe-
cially destructive in timber weakened by boxing for the extrac-
tion of crude turpentine.
Extensive wind damage has been comparatively rare in the
Northeast, although more than 1,500,000,000 feet of softwoods
1 See Forestry Quarterly, Vol. X, No. 2, p. 304.
38 LOGGING
were blown down in Maine during a storm in November, 1883,
less than 2 per cent of which was saved. ^
Timber blown down in the fall is free from insect pests until
the following April, after which the sapwood is soon rendered
valueless on account of the holes made by insects and by fungi
which enter these burrows and discolor the wood.
Light storms frequently occur over many parts of the southern
forests and blow down individual trees. These can be saved
provided the timber is not too far distant from a mill. If the
amount of timber is sufficient to warrant it, small mills are
estabhshed to manufacture the timber into lumber.
There is greater need for tornado insurance than for fire in-
surance on timber in the South, but the writer has no knowledge
of any such policies.
The percentage of the total stand destroyed by storms in
other forest regions of the United States is comparatively small.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER H
Adams, Daniel W.: ^Methods and Apparatus for the Prevention and Control
of Forest Fires, as Exemplified on the Arkansas National Forest. Bui. 113,
U. S. Forest Service, 191 2.
Anonymous: Erlauterungen der Waldversicherungseinrichtungen der Glad-
bacher Feuerversicherungs Gesellschaft. Druck von Weisz and Zimmer in
M. Gladbach, 1904.
Graves, Henr>' S.: Protection of Forests from Fire. Bui. 82, U. S. Forest
Service, 191 2.
: Principles of Handling Woodlands. John Wiley & Sons.
New York, 191 1.
Holmes, J. S.: Suggestions for the Disposal of Brush in the National Forests.
U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C, 1907.
Plummer, Fred G.: Forest Fires; Their Causes, Extent and Effects, with a
Summary of Recorded Destruction and Loss. Bui. 117, U. S. Forest Ser-
vice, 1912.
Record, S. J.: Forest Fire Insurance in Germany. Proceedings of the Society
of American Foresters, Vol. II, No. 3, 1907, pp. 95-102.
1 See Report of the Forest Commissioner of the State of Maine, pp. 40-42,
Augusta, 1902.
CHAPTER III
TIMBER BONDS
Bonds with standing timber as security were first placed on
the market in 1902, as a result of unsatisfactory financial con-
ditions in the lumber industry in the South, where lumbermen
were often forced to borrow from local banks to meet current
expenses, such as payroll and freight rates. These banks not
only charged high rates, but often demanded pa}Tnent when
the lumberman was not in position to meet his obligations
especially since his products were sold to parties who demanded
from sixty to ninety days' time.
The rapid growth of the lumber industry required some new
method of financing operations which would eliminate floating
debts and short time loans, provide ample funds for financing
the operation, permit lumbermen to carry a sufficient stock of
lumber to meet market requirements, enable the discounting of
bills with resulting economy, and concentrate the indebtedness.
This need was met by the issuing of bonds which were first
confined to the South, but are now common in the West, and
a few issues have been floated in the eastern part of the United
States.
Timber bonds require a higher margin of safety than those of
most public utiKties because the profits on lumber are subject
to a greater fluctuation during industrial depressions and may
become so small as to jeopardize the value of the bond. They
have an advantage, however, over many industrial bonds in that
they are secured by a natural resource fast being depleted and
the ownership of which is rapidly being concentrated in com-
paratively few hands. This leads to greater stabihty of values,
and timber bonds of the best class are rapidly coming into favor
among conservative investors, especially those who are familiar
with forest properties.
39
40 LOGGING
The chief security rests upon the stumpage. Conservative
bond issues do not aggregate more than 40 or 50 per cent of the
present value of the stumpage, based on an appraisal by com-
petent timber estimators. In view of the constant increase in
timber values and the awakening interest in fire protection this
limit is ample for the protection of the bond holder.
Sawmill plants, railroads and logging equipment are often
made a part of the security offered, but they should constitute
onl}- a small portion of the total, for while they are indispensable
to the conversion of stumpage into a salable product, their value
is chiefly dependent on the supply of stumpage back of them.
Sawmill plants rapidly depreciate in value, are a bad fire risk,
and on the exhaustion of the stumpage the owners can seldom
realize more than 20 or 30 per cent of the cost. They should
not be rehed upon to any great extent as security even though
hea\ily insured. Logging railroads are usually temporary- in
character, and the rights-of-way are often abandoned as soon
as logging in a given section is completed; therefore, unless the
road is to be continued under charter, the chief value is in the
worth of the rails and equipment.
Timberland has not as }et been accepted as securit}- in a bond
issue, but when valuable for agricultural or other purposes it
adds strength to the financial resources of the mortgagor.
WTiere the title to the land is in doubt, the timber standing
on it should not be accepted as security. Timber rights that do
not expire pre^"ious to the maturity of the bond issue are accepted
as security at one-fourth their value by some underwTiters.
Some of the more recent issues have been guaranteed by
wealthy lumbermen, which forms a further basis of security
although many desirable bonds are not so guaranteed.
Timber bonds as a rule ^deld 6 per cent with a premium vary-
ing from ioi| to no when the bonds are retired before maturity.
The issues mature in from ten to thirty years, the first of the
series coming due in from six months to two years after issuance,
the remainder at semiannual or annual intervals. The retire-
ment of all bonds is made optional and most mortgagors take
advantage of this fact to pay oft" the issue as rapidly as possible.
TIMBER BOXDS 4I
Bonds are issued in denominations of S500 or $1,000 with the
exception of a speculation series on the Pacific Coast which may
be purchased in denominations of $100. The largest bond issue
was that of the Long-Bell Lumber Company of Kansas City,
Missouri, for $9,000,000, maturing in fourteen years at semi-
annual periods. These draw 6 per cent and any or all may
be paid at any interest period prior to maturity on sixty days'
notice, at a premium of 1.5 per cent and accrued interest.
Sinking Fund. — The amount of the bond issue is based
largely upon the standing timber owned by the mortgagor. It
is essential, therefore, that the loan be reduced as the stumpage
is cut. This is accomplished by depositing with a trustee a
certain sum for each thousand feet cut or to be cut within a
given period. These funds are then used by the trustee to meet
interest charges and also to pay off bonds as they become due.
Many bonds call for the payment of the deposit at intervals of
thirty or sixty days; in some cases every six months, or at the
end of the logging season, where, as in the North, logging is
carried on only for a portion of the year. The safest bonds are
those calHng for payment in advance of cutting. The amount
paid is often based on an estimate of the stand by " forties " as
shown by the sworn report of the cruiser. Provision should also
be made for the pa\Tnent for timber destroyed or injured by
fire, wind, insects, or other causes, on the same basis as for the
timber that is logged. Numerous issues have not contained
provisions of this latter character, but they cannot be regarded
as a safe investment because fire and winds may wipe out a
large part of the security, and unless some provision is made to
offset this the sinking fund will not be sufficient to meet the
bonds when due, or at least the bond purchaser will not have
the protection to which he is entitled.
There is no uniformity as to the amount per thousand feet
paid into the sinking fund. It ranges from $1.50 to $6 per
thousand feet, the greater number of bonds calling for a payment
ranging from $2.50 to $3.50 per thousand feet. As a rule
lumbermen prefer to pay approximately the value of the stump-
age into the sinking fund, because as the price of stumpage in-
42 LOGGING
creases and protection becomes more certain, the tendency will
be to regard timber bond issues with greater favor and bond
buyers will be satisfied with a lower rate of interest. Therefore,
it will be more advantageous to the stumpage owners to pay off
their indebtedness as soon as they can do so, and if necessary se-
cure a later loan at a more favorable rate. Unless a company is
weU fortified financially, a hea\y payment may impose a hard-
ship on operators during periods of depression, and if the margin
of profit is not sutficient to meet a high sinking fund rate the
company may be forced to default on the bonds.
Floating a Bond Issue. — Timber bonds are now sold by a few
brokerage firms in the East, and also some of the larger cities of
the Pacific Coast but their chief market is in Chicago. They are
handled by some brokers in connection with other bonds, but
many of the best issues have been placed on the market by
brokers who make a specialty of timber bonds. Although the
majority have been sound there have been some unsafe issues
floated, largely because the investigation prior to the acceptance
of the bonds was superficial, and the brokers did not understand
the nature of the securities they wished to sell.
A timberman who desires to float a bond issue on his property
applies either to a bond house or banker to negotiate the loan.
One of the foremost timber bond brokerage houses in the
country', which claims to have sold about sixty million dollars'
worth of timber bonds without a default of principal or interest,
gives the following as their mode of procedure previous to
negotiating a loan.
"When a lumber company desires to make a bond issue on
its timberlands and sa\vmill plant as security, we require of it
a general statement showing the valuation of the property, the
number of acres of timberland, varieties of timber, the estimated
amount of lumber it will produce, and other information of a
general nature, including the amount and purpose of the bond
issue desired.
"If the security seems ample to make such bond issue safe
and investigation into the credit and standing of the company
is satisfactory, we agree to accept the bond issue if our own
TIMBER BONDS 43
independent preliminary investigation results in bearing out the
statement furnished by the company that has made application
for the bond issue.
"Every timberland bond issue handled by us must conform
to the following high standard of security.
" (a) The company issuing the bonds must be well established
in high credit; its officers and managers must be thoroughly
experienced and in good standing among lumbermen.
" (b) The lands must be well located, contain timber of good
quality, the amount thereof to be in every case determined by
capable, well-known timber estimators, employed by us to cruise
the timber which, in every case, must have a cash market value
of at least 50 per cent in excess of the bond issue.
" (c) The titles to the lands must be carefully examined and
approved by our own legal counsel.
"(J) The mortgage securing the bonds must contain strict
provisions which operate to insure the regular deposit of an
agreed amount per thousand feet for all timber cut sufficient to
retire all of the bonds when about one-half of the timber is con-
sumed ; these deposits to be applied to the payment of the prin-
cipal of the bonds as the several serials, semiannually or annually,
become due. The mortgage makes provision for keeping careful
check upon the cutting of timber and accounting for the same to
the mortgage trustee."
If the statement of the company is satisfactory, a detailed
examination is made, including a thorough estimate of the
standing timber and other property; a study of the efficiency of
the operation; cost of production and sales; inquiry into the
shipping facilities, and all other factors that may influence the
operation and profits of the business. This examination is made
by men trained especially for the work because it requires a wider
range of knowledge than is possessed by the average timber
cruiser.
The expenses incident to a bond issue are borne by the party
who desires to secure the loan. They include an audit of the
books, a timber cruise, legal charges for examination of titles,
drawing the deed of trust, drafting the text of the bond, charges
44 LOGGING
of the trustee, the cost of printing the mortgage, Kthographing
the bonds and other incidental expenses.
Some bond houses cruise the cut-over areas at occasional
intervals in order to check up the original estimates and the
actual manufacture of lumber; examine other portions of the
timberland property which is security for the bonds in order to
learn whether any timber cut has not been reported, or has beea
killed by lire, wind or insects; and also investigate the general
management of the property for efficiency. By this means a
close check is kept on the conduct of the business and the rights
of the bond holders can then be fully protected.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES TO CHAPTER HI
Bartrell, E. E.: Questions of Law Encountered in Timber Bond Issues.
Annals of .\m. Acad., Supplement, May, 191 2, pp. 23-24.
Brantff, E. A.: Timber Bonds. Proceedings of the Society of American
Foresters, Washington, D. C., 1912. Vol. \TI, No. i, pp. 58-79.
CxjMMiNGS, W. J. : Waste Material as a Source of Profit and Added Securitj^ in
Timber Bonds. Annals of American Academy, Supplement, Philadelphia,
Maj-, 191 2, pp. 76-80.
JoxES, A. F.: Accountants Relation to Timber Bond Issues. Annals of Am.
Acad., Supplement, ^lay, 191 2, pp. 51-58.
L.\CEY, J. D.: Science of Timber Valuation. Annals of Amer. Acad., Supple-
ment, May, 1912, pp. 9-22.
McGrath, T. S.: Timber Bonds. Craig- Wa^me Company, Chicago, Illinois,
1911.
: Timber Bond Features. Annals of Amer. Acad., Supple-
ment, May, 191 2.
S.^CKETT, H. S.: Timberland Bonds as an Investment, .\merican Lumber-
man, Chicago, Illinois, January 25, 1913, pp. 33"35-
PART II
PREPARING LOGS FOR TRANSPORT
CHAPTER IV
FOREST LABOR
The successful conduct of forest operations depends in a large
measure on the character, supply and efficiency of labor, factors
which are influenced by the economic conditions of the country.
In prosperous times work is abundant and capable men are not
attracted by the average wage paid for forest work. This means
a restless woods force, a portion of which constantly shifts from
camp to camp. Business depression is quickly felt in the lumber
industry because in hard times railroad companies and other
large consumers of forest products reduce their purchases of
lumber, crossties and other material. The dull market prompts
the lumberman to cut down expenses and one of the first steps
taken is to reduce the labor charge since this is one of the chief
items in the cost of lumber production.
The agricultural interests of different regions may also have
a decided influence on labor supply during certain seasons.
This is illustrated in the cypress region of Louisiana, where
sugar production is an important industry and where Creoles and
negroes prefer to work in the fields and sugar mills during the
cane-harvesting season.
LENGTH OF EMPLOYMENT
The length of time forest laborers are required each year is
governed by the character of the operation. In the northeastern
part of the United States, in some parts of the Lake States and
in the Inland Empire there is a demand for the maximum number
of laborers only from eight to nine months of the year; in the
southern pine, cypress and Pacific Coast forests, where rail-
roading replaces sled haul and water transport, loggers operate
the year round.
47
48 LOGGING
CHAR.A.CTER
During the early years of the industry the woods force in the
North and East was recruited from the native agricultural
element, but in recent years it has been replaced by French
Canadians, Finns. Swedes, Danes, Poles and inhabitants of
southern Europe. French Canadians come over the border
during the fall and winter months to secure a ''stake." Many
Swedes and Norwegians, who are among the best woods-workers
from Europe, are employed in the Lake States and on the Pacific
Coast where wages are high. Finns and Poles work chiefly in
the Lake States. The American-born employees are now found
in the more responsible positions.
The labor in the Appalachians consists largely of natives,
some of whom combine agriculture with logging while others
follow logging as their sole occupation.
Whites and negroes comprise the chief forest labor of the South,
although Creoles and Mexicans are common in the Louisiana
c}'press swamps, and many Mexicans are employed in Texas,
especially around the mills and on railroad construction work.
The whites are often agriculturists who work at logging only for
a portion of the year, while the negroes, except in the sugar
country, follow the industr}- the year round with frequent shifts
from one camp to another. Owing chiefly to the climate the
laborers are, on the whole, less energetic than those in northern
regions. The color Hne is drawn on logging operations and
mixed crews are not the rule. Creoles and Mexicans work with
colored laborers, although Mexicans are incHned to be clannish.
METHODS OF EMPLOYMENT AND OF PAYMENT
The chief methods of employing labor are (i) by the day or
month; (2) by contract.
The first is desirable where labor is efficient. Even where the
bulk of the work is done by contract, a small force should be
maintained to prevent the arbitrary dictation of prices by
contractors.
The basis of employment in the Northeast, Lake States,
FOREST LABOR 49
Inland Empire and on the Pacific Coast is generally by the day
or month, with or without a charge for board. Day labor pre-
dominates on the Pacific Coast, while in the other sections a
monthly wage is more common. When employed on the latter
basis, workmen may or may not be charged with lost time due
to bad weather or to sickness.
Contract labor is preferable where labor is inefficient and
liabiHty laws are unfavorable to the employer. This method
is common in the southern }-ellow pine, c}'press and the Appa-
lachian regions. The system is extended in some regions to
cover the entire field of mill-stocking, although it is usually
applied to felhng and log-making, skidding, hauling and railroad
grade construction. The last is almost invariably a single con-
tract, but the others may be handled together. For instance,
one contractor may agree to deliver the logs along the railroad.
The common basis of pa>Tnent for contract logging work is
by the thousand feet, log scale. When this method is not used,
felling and log-making are paid for by the log, tree, number of
saw-cuts made or by the "task." The latter is really on a day
wage basis, because the workmen receive a stated sum per day,
provided they cut a given num.ber of logs, or a certain number of
feet, log scale. The task is common in the Carolinas and in some
portions of Arkansas.
Some lumbermen furnish the contractors with tools and
suppHes. This may cover only felling and log-making, or it may
be extended to include the skidding and hauling equipment,
either power or animal, and the railroad or other means used in
transporting the logs to the mill. Such an arrangement materi-
ally affects the contract price.
Small contracts are usually verbal but large ones are generally
in writing. About 10 per cent of the contract price is usually
withheld until the work is satisfactorily completed.
Many lumber companies operate commissaries or general
stores in connection with their logging and milling work. Since
it is to their advantage to have the trade of their employees, cash
is paid only on specified pay days. Meanwhile, employees may
obtain metal trading checks or coupon books to the value of their
50 LOGGING
credit which are accepted at face value at the company store.
This tends to keep the trade at home, especially if the company
discourages the redemption of their checks or coupons when
presented b}' others than employees.
Weekh'. semi-monthly, or monthly pay days are the rule in
the South. A practice also exists among some operators of
deferring pa}'ment for two weeks or a month in order to hold
the men.
In other regions loggers do not have regular pay days but the
woodsmen are given credit at the camp store for such supplies
as they need. Final settlement is made by check or by order
on the head ofhce or some store or bank when the man leaves
the emplo}- of the logger. When labor is scarce special induce-
ments such as payment on demand instead of at some fixed date
are sometimes offered to secure workmen.
FACTORS \\:BICH INFLUENCE WAGES
The wage paid for forest work depends largel}- on the following
factors :
(i) The amount of labor available.
(2) The degree of skill required.
(3) The condition under which labor is performed. Laborers
prefer to work near settlements and may demand higher wages
on remote operations, and where low stumps, brush disposal and
other restrictions demand the exercise of greater care and effort
than usual.
(4) The perquisites offered. Labor can be secured more
readily and at a lower wage where hospital, accident insurance,
school, church and like benefits are afforded.
A fist of the wages paid in several forest regions is given on
pages 531 to 535, inclusive, in the Appendix.
UNIONS
Forest employees in the Northeast and Lake States have no
regular form of labor organization.
In the Inland Empire and on the Pacific Coast unions exist
which have state organizations supporting a staff of organizers
FOREST LABOR 5 1
and inspectors. Boycotts and strikes have in some instances
been conducted by these organizations but in general the in-
dustry has been free from disturbances due to organized labor.
An important feature of some of these unions is a hospital
benefit.
During the years 1911-1912 sawmill employees and woods-
workers in Louisiana and Texas attempted to organize a union
known as the ''Brotherhood of Timber Workers," in affiliation
with the "Industrial Workers of the World." The movement
promoted by inflammatory leaders grew rapidly and during the
year 191 1 caused several of the largest mills in these states to
close for a time. The organization has not been a success.
ORGANIZATION
The usual division of responsibihty in logging operations is
shown on pages 52 and 53. The first is that of a large opera-
tion in the yellow pine region of the South; the second, the
form common in the North.
workmen's compensation acts
For many years the responsibility of compensating laborers
injured in the performance of their work was regulated by
Employers' Liabihty Laws. These held the employer Hable for
accidents v^^hich occurred by reason of his failure to conform to
the laws. Lawsuits were frequent and usually proved expensive
to all concerned, often resulting on the one hand in a denial by
the courts of compensation to parties to whom it was due, and
on the other in granting heavy damages to those who were not
entitled to them.
The employers protected their interest through liabihty
insurance companies but a great waste of money resulted since
only from 29 to 50 per cent of the premiums paid reached the
injured employees or their dependents and fully 40 per cent of
this was expended by the injured party for attorneys' fees.
Compensation through hability laws has tended to create an
antagonistic feeling between employer and employee and for
52
LOGGING
ORGANIZATION OF A SOUTHERN RAILROAD OPERATION
' Location engineer
(main line rail-
road).
Woods foreman.
General
Manager.
Train master.
Assistant manager. ■<
Land agent.
Log scaler.
Chief clerk.
Storekeepers.
Grading
contractors.
Team boss. <
Felling contractor.
Camp blacksmith.
Barn man.
Grading boss (spurs),
Loader foreman and
engineer.
Steel crew foreman.
Train conductors.
Section boss.
Shop foreman (mill).
Sawmill foreman.
Yard foreman.
Dry kiln and dry
shed foreman.
Supply clerk.
Head carpenter.
Shipping clerk.
Planing mill fore-
man.
Cruisers.
Office force.
Mill watchmen.
Assistant storekeep-
ers.
Clerks.
Laborers.
Teamsters.
Swampers.
Woods sawyers.
Laborers.
Loader crew.
Steel crew.
Train crews.
Section crews.
Shop crew.
Sawmill crew.
Graders (green
lumber).
Sorters.
Teamsters.
Filers.
Kiln truck load-
ers and un-
loaders.
Graders (dry
lumber).
Assorters.
Carpenter crew.
Truckers to
planer.
Loaders.
Planing mill
crew.
FOREST LABOR
ORGANIZATION IN THE NORTHERN WOODS
53
f
Scaler and clerk.
'
Saw boss.
Saw filers.
Road foreman.
Toters.
Sawyers.
Cook.
Plunkies.
Woods foreman. ■
General
Manager.
Skidding foreman. •
Road repair crew.
Teamsters.
Swampers.
Skidwaymen.
Bam man.
*-
Landing boss.
Landing crew.
Drive foreman.
Log drivers (small
streams).
many years this method of settlement has been regarded as
unsatisfactory.
Tn recent years several states^ have abolished the liability laws
and have passed Workmen's Compensation Acts which provide,
without trial by court or jury, for the payment of specified sums
for injuries received. The injured workman secures a definite
compensation without any legal expense and without regard to
the cause of the accident, provided it was not self-inflicted.
The employer must waive all rights to the common law defences
of "contributory negligence," "assumption of risk" and the
"fellow servant rule," which were prominent features in litiga-
tion under the liability laws.
One of the most satisfactory Workmen's Compensation Acts,
from the standpoint of the lumber operator, is now in force in
the state of Washington, having gone into effect in October, 191 1 .
This law provides for an Industrial Insurance Commission to
administer the law and for the payment, by the State, of all
expenses of administration of the Act, placing the burden of
compensation on the employer.
Among the features of this law are the following :
(i) When engaged in hazardous occupations the provisions
of the Act are obligatory on both the employer and employee,
^ .\mong these are California, Washington, Wisconsin, New Jersey, Illinois,
New Hampshire and Kansas.
54 LOGGING
and it is optional with others. Those who come under the
provisions of the law w^aive all rights to the common law de-
fences, and the employee must accept the awards of the Com-
mission, in lieu of his right to sue at common law.
(2) Any employer, workman or beneficiary has the right of
appeal to the Superior Court in the County of his residence,
when the award is not satisfactory. If the Court deems the
award unjust, the Commission must pay the plain tifi"'s costs and
attorneys' fees out of the administration fund.
(3) The awards are made from a fund contributed by the
employers, who pay a certain percentage^ of their pa}Toll to the
Commission.
(4) The various industries and parts of industries are grouped
separately according to the degree of hazard, and each class has
a fund of its own from which awards are made for such accidents
as arise to its employees. In case of the depletion of the fund,
provisions are made for special assessments to cover the deficit.
Although the fund is not intended to be cumulative, there is
no provision for a reduction of the assessment fixed by law.
(5) It is unlawful for the employer to deduct from the wages
of the employee any portion of the premium paid into the acci-
dent fund.
(6) All forms of injury are classified and a standard schedule
of awards is fixed for each.
(7) In case of the death of an employee a pension is granted
to the widow during her unmarried fife, including an allowance
for each child under sixteen years of age, up to a maximum of
three children. Orphans receive an allowance twice that granted
to children who have a parent living. Provision is also made for
dependents when the deceased has no immediate relatives.
(8) Pensions are met by setting aside a specified sum, based
on mortahty tables, which is deposited with the State Treasurer,
and from which the pa}'ments are made when due.
(9) If a workman deliberately injures himself, or causes his
own death, no award can be made from the accident fund. On
1 The rates for the lumber industry are as follows: logging railroads 5 per cent;
logging operations, sawmills and lumber yards, 2.5 per cent.
FOREST LABOR 55
the other hand, if the employer brings about such injury or death
through negligence, the widow, children or dependents come
within the provisions of the Act, and further have cause for
action against the employer for any damages in excess of those
awarded by the Commission.
(10) Provisions are made for penalizing an employer who fails
to observe the safeguards required by law. He must not only
pay the regular percentage on his payroll but, in addition, 50
per cent of the award granted to the injured party. If the work-
man removes, or allows to be removed, any safeguard and he is
injured thereby, the award is reduced 10 per cent.
(11) Employers are required to report all accidents to the
Commission, and their books must be open to inspection by the
traveling auditors of the Commission.
(12) Apphcation for relief under this Act must be made
within one year from the date of the accident.
The adoption of this Act has led to the abandonment of
liability insurance by lumbermen in Washington, and many
operators believe that ultimately it will prove to be a cheaper
form of settlement for accidents than has previously been avail-
able, as well as promoting a better feeling between employer
and employee.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER IV
First Annual Report of the Industrial Insurance Department, State of Wash-
ington, for the twelve months ending September 30, 191 2. Olympia,
Washington.
Pratt, C. S.: Washington Workmen's Compensation Act is Successful in its
Operation. The Timbermen, Portland, Oregon, August, 1912, pp. 74-77.
CHAPTER V
CAMPS
In early times camps were crude structures having few, if any,
conveniences and the men were given very plain fare but a
logger can no longer crowd a large number of men into a small
building, and feed them on plain, poorly-cooked food, for the
increase in the demand for labor in the woods and the constantly
growing scarcity of competent help have forced loggers to make
their camps more comfortable and to furnish a bill of fare that
compares favorably with many hotels.
CAMP LOCATION
The requirements for a camp sit^ for snow logging may be
summarized as follows:
(i) A central location with reference to a large tract. It is
not considered profitable to walk men more than i^ miles from
camp to work, or from one watershed to another, because they
consume too much time and energy. It is cheaper to construct
new camps if there is a large amount of timber, or a secondary
one if the quantity is small. The camp should be located so that
the main haul or two-sled road will run through the camp lot on
its way to the landing. Teamsters then lose no time in getting
to work in the morning, returning to feed animals, and getting
them to stable at night after a hard day's work. During the
hauling season time is an important factor, and where long hours
are observed every precaution should be taken to husband the
strength of animals and men.
(2) A level, well-drained camp site from one to two acres in
extent which is free from large boulders that would be a hin-
drance to the location of buildings.
(3) A stream of pure running water near at hand for drinking,
cooking, laundry purposes and stock watering, and so located
that it will not be contaminated by the camp.
56
CAMPS 57
(4) Accessibility to the source of supplies is an important
factor, although secondary to proper location with reference to
the timber and main haul.
The requirements for a camp site for a railroad operation may
be summarized as follows:
(i) A well-drained site, with no swamps or other mosquito-
breeding spots in the vicinity, because railroad camps are
operated during the warm season when there is the greatest
danger from malaria.
(2) Location with reference to a natural supply of pure water
is secondary to good drainage since drinking water is either
hauled to the camp in tank cars or can be obtained by driving
wells at the camp site. It is desirable, however, to have a run-
ning stream in the vicinity from which water for the stock and
for laundry purposes may be secured.
(3) AccessibiKty to the operation is essential unless the men
can be transported to and from their labor by train.
(4) A sufficient area of level ground to permit the construc-
tion of the spur tracks required for moving the houses and also
set-out switches for log cars.
Floating camps are placed in bayous and canals in proximity
to the operation. Pure drinking water cannot be secured from
these streams and provision must be made for a boiled or dis-
tilled supply.
TYPES OF CAMPS
Log Camps. — Typical buildings are usually one story high
and are constructed crib-fashion of logs, preferably of conifers
with the slightest taper obtainable. These are notched at the
corners to hold them together and to reduce the chink space
which is filled with moss and clay, or mortar. The floors in
the living rooms are made of hewn timber or rough lumber,
and the roofs are covered with "shakes" or prepared roofing.
The doors are made from rough boards, and a few windows
furnish light and aid in ventilation. Occasionally a framework
on which logs are fastened upright is substituted for the crib-
work.
58 LOGGING
Log camps in the North generally comprise the following
buildings :
(i) An office and store, sometimes called a "van," which is
the headquarters and the sleeping place of the foreman, camp
clerk and log scaler. The equipment of the room consists of
single bunks for the men, a few shelves on which goods are dis-
played, and a rough counter over which they are sold, two or
three homemade chairs, and a box stove. The store carries
necessaries required by the woodsmen, such as shoes, clothing,
tobacco and a few drugs. Occasionally the office is in one of
the main buildings.
(2) A cook shanty housing the kitchen and dining depart-
ment. The former is usually placed in one end of the building,
and the remaining space is devoted to long board dining tables
running lengthwise or crosswise of the building. Benches are
provided for seats. A small sleeping room is partitioned off for
the cook.
(3) A bunk house providing lounging and sleeping quarters
for the men. Double bunks two stories high are built along the
side wall and often across the ends of the building. Each bunk
accommodates two men. Straw or hay is supphed in heu of
mattresses. Blankets ma}' or may not be supplied by the camp.
The furniture consists of long wooden benches, called "deacon
seats," ranged alongside of the bunks. A large sink for washing,
one or two heating stoves, and a grindstone are also part of the
equipment. Wires for drying clothing are suspended over the
stove.
Ventilation is often secured by placing a barrel in a hole in
the roof and fitting it with a hinged head that may be opened
and closed; if this is not used, some other crude arrangement
is adopted.
Cook shanties and bunk houses are generally separate build-
ings, although in the Northeast they are often only from 6 to 10
feet apart, and the gap is covered with a roof, boarded up in the
rear and used as a storage place, called a "dingle."
Two-storied camps, having the kitchen and dining-room on
the lower floor and the sleeping quarters on the second floor,
CAMPS
59
are sometimes used In the Adirondack mountains, although the
general practice is to use one-storied buildings.
(4) Stables or hovels — rough buildings with a good roof and
fairly tight sides — • are constructed to afford proper protection to
animals. They are equipped with stalls, feed boxes, harness
racks and grain bins. Each animal is usually allowed a stall
space of 5 by 10 feet. When a large number are kept in one
camp, the stalls are arranged on opposite sides of the building
Fig. 7. — Typical Logging Camp of the Northeast, showing the cook shanty in the
foreground, the bunk house, the blacksmith shop, and the stable at the extreme
right. IMaine.
with an alleyway in the middle in which grain and hay are
stored. A 6-foot runway is left behind the animals to facilitate
cleaning the barn and to afford a passage for the animals to and
from their stalls. The barn equipment, including harness, costs
about $55 per team.
(5) A storehouse, where large quantities of supplies are kept.
This may be a detached building or a room in the cook shanty
set aside for this purpose.
6o
LOGGING
(6) A storage or root cellar which is an underground place
where vegetables are kept. It must be frost-proof and yet cool
enough to prevent the produce from spoiHng.
(7) A blacksmith shop where horses are shod, sleds and other
equipment made and repaired, and similar work done. If a va-
riety of work is performed there must be a fairly complete set
of iron- working and wood- working tools.
Photograph by H. DeForesi.
Fig. 8. — A Two-storied Logging Camp. The dining-room, lounging room, and
oflace are on the ground floor, and the sleeping quarters are on the second
floor. Northern New York.
The following list comprises the chief tools required in a iirst-
class camp shop:
I forge, complete, including bellows
I anvil
3 augers, i j-, 2- and 3-inch
I thread cutter and an assortment of dies
4 hammers
I vise
1 broadax
2 rasps
I coal shovel
12 tongs, assorted
I brace and an assortment of bits
I drill machine and an assortment of
drills
I bolt clipper
1 striking hammer
2 monkey wrenches
2 two-inch iron squares
I set of horse-shoeing tools
I iron heating stove
CAMPS 6 1
A general assortment of cold chisels, drawing knives, pinchers
and an assortment of files.
(8) Sled storehouses to shelter sleds and other equipment
during the summer months.
An average crew for the northern woods is about sixty men, and
in addition from twenty-five to thirty-five horses. A camp to
accommodate a crew of sixty men and thirty horses would be
composed of buildings of the following approximate sizes:
Office and store i6 by 20 feet
Cook shanty 35 by 37 feet
Bunk house 35 by 37 feet
Stables (2) 40 by 40 feet
Storehouse 16 by 16 feet
Blacksmith shop 27 by 27 feet
Storage cellar 8 by 12 feet
Sled storehouse 10 by 15 feet
A camp of this size was built in Maine with a total expenditure
of 300 days' labor and twenty days' teamhire at a cost of
approximately $600. Three and one-half million feet of timber
were logged annually from this camp for three years, so that the
cost of camp construction was about 6 cents per thousand feet
log scale. On some operations this charge may run as high as
10 cents per thousand feet.
In some parts of the North especially where logging railroads
are used, log buildings have been replaced by board camps cov-
ered with tar paper. Buildings of this character are torn down
when a camp site is abandoned and the lumber is used for build-
ings on a new site.
Portable-house Camps. — The buildings in these camps are
used indefinitely and are moved from place to place as logging
progresses being placed on skids along either side of the main
line or of a spur of the logging railroad. Two or three of them
grouped together ma}- form a dwelling for a family, or singly
they may be fitted up as bunk houses to shelter two or more men.
Large camps in the South may consist of 200 or more houses
and shelter from 200 to 300 persons, of whom only from 30 to 50
per cent may be men in the employ of the logging company.
62
LOGGING
Camps of this character constitute small villages with a school
and church for the benefit of the loggers and their famihes.
Other buildings include quarters for the superintendent, some-
times a boarding-house for single men, barns for the stock, a
machine shop, storage houses, coal supply bins for the locomo-
tives and a commissary or store. The latter is an important
feature in isolated camps for not only the families in camp but
also many of the local inhabitants secure their supplies from this
source. Stores of this character often carry a large stock of
goods and sell monthly several thousand dollars' worth of mer-
chandise, groceries and feed.
Fig. 9. — A Portable-house Logging Camp. The large building in the rear is the
commissary or general store. Arkansas.
When famihes do not hve in camps the number of buildings
is hmited and may include, besides the bunk houses, an office
and a cook shanty. The latter because of its large size frequently
is not portable. A small "van" is maintained from which the
men can secure such necessities as they require. Camps of this
character are found in the Northwest.
Portable houses must be of a size that can be loaded readily
and transported on log cars. Strength in construction is an
important factor, because of the frequent handhng to which
they are subjected.
CAMPS 63
The buildings vary in size and in mode of construction. In the
South they are 12 by 14 feet or 10 by 20 feet, with a door at each
end and a window in each side. The framework on which the
floor joists rest is made of heavy timbers, and the side bracing,
floor joists and rafters of 2- by 4-inch material. The siding may
be 4-inch dressed and matched material, and the interiors of the
better houses are ceiled with f-inch ceiHng. A cheap grade of
flooring is used. The roof is covered with sheet iron or some
patent roofing material.
A house of this character 10 by 20 feet in size requires ap-
proximately 2200 feet of lumber, 230 square feet of roofing, 4
window sashes, 4 pairs of hinges, 2 doors and 2 door knobs. It
can be built at a cost of from $45 to $60 each, including the
value of material and labor, and if kept in good repair and
painted at intervals will last for many years.
Portable houses are loaded on log cars either by animals or
log loaders.
In loading a house with the aid of animals, the log cars are
"spotted" on the railroad track opposite the house to be loaded
and skids are placed from the house to the car. One end of a
cable is attached to the house, the other end being passed over
the car through a block and fall fastened to a tree or stump on
the opposite side of the track. A team is attached to the free
end of the cable and the house is dragged slowly up the skids
and on to the car bunks.
A house can be handled most expeditiously with loaders, in
which case there must be a heav^' 6-inch by 12-inch timber
running lengthwise or crosswise under the center of the building.
An iron rod, i§ inches in diameter, having a large eye at one end
and a screw thread at the other, is run through the center of the
house from the peak of the roof down through the heavy floor
beam and made fast with a nut. An empty log car and the log
loader having been placed on the track opposite the house, the
loader cable is fastened to the eye of the rod, and the whole
structure is raised clear of the foundation, then swung around in
position and gently lowered on to the car. It is unloaded by
a reversal of the process. In some cases the rods are fixed per-
64 LOGGING
manently to two corners of the house, diagonally opposite, and
a bridle on the loading cable is fastened to them when the house
is to be moved. The movement of the house does not necessi-
tate the removal of the household effects.
Barns for animals at portable logging camps may be either
semi-permanent board structures, tents or specially constructed
cars.
Board barns are advantageous in a region where the winter
weather is severe since they can be made tight and afford ample
shelter and comfort for the animals. They are built of cheap
lumber with a board roof battened or covered with prepared
roofing. Such structures are expensive when camp is moved
frequently, because some lumber is destroyed each time the
building is torn down, and the cost of erection is considerable.
A barn of this character for the accommodation of from thirty-
five to forty horses costs from $150 to $175.
A form of tent barn 32 feet wide with 14-foot center poles and
7-foot side poles is recommended by some loggers for temporary
camps. Double stalls are made 10 by 10 feet with 6-foot alleys
at the rear. A barn of this character made from 12-ounce duck
can be built for approximately $1.25 per linear foot of barn
length.
Car barns are employed in some parts of the South and are
considered very desirable by those who use them. A type of
car barn used in Arkansas consists of a flat car io| feet by 40
feet in size, with standard freight trucks on which is built a
superstructure 9 feet from the floor to the eaves, with a gradually
sloping peaked roof covered with tar paper. A passageway 6|
feet wide runs through the center of the car which provides a
place for the storage of hay and grain, and on each side of it
feed and hay boxes are arranged. A drop roof, supported on
3-inch by 6-inch by 8-foot scantling, covers stall space 10 feet
wide beyond which is an extension roof covering an alley. Four
double stalls are arranged on each side of the car separated by
board partitions wired to supports on the car and under the
outer edge of the drop roof. The stable floor is filled in with
earth to give drainage. No protection other than the short
CAMPS
65
extension roof is provided at the rear. The car is left on a
temporary track and in one hour can be dismantled ready to
move.
End View.
,2x6
Side View.
Fig. io. — An End and Side View of the Frame of a Car Bam.
A car of this character is serviceable where frequent changes
of site are necessary. It is not suitable for a region in which
the weather is severe during the winter months, although with
66 LOGGING
a little additional labor it would be possible to enclose it on the
sides and ends. A car barn can be built for $400.
Corrals for idle animals are enclosed with panels five boards
high and 16 feet long which are wired to posts set at proper
intervals. The only labor required in moving to a new site is
to cut the wire and load the panels on flat cars.
Car Camps. — Logging camps sometimes consist of a number
of box cars fitted up for sleeping quarters, kitchen and dining-
room, and office and commissar}-. They are moved from site to
site as the work progresses and placed on a siding at each camp.
The entire camp can be moved in a very short time, the men are
always near their work, and it is claimed that car camps are more
sanitary than frame ones because of their height above ground.
Because of the increased investment these camps are not desir-
able where famihes must be housed.
In an Oregon camp the units are built on 34-foot flat cars and
each consists of a superstructure 46 feet long, 14 feet wide and
8^ feet high from floor to eaves. Ten cars provide accommoda-
tions for eighty men, five cars being used for bunk houses, and
one each for kitchen, store room, dining hall, headquarters and
commissary, and power and baths.
Each bunk car accommodates sixteen men and is fitted up
with two-storied single bunks pro\'ided with springs and mat-
tresses. The cars are steam-heated, electric-lighted and afford
comfortable quarters for the men.
A unique departure is the power and bath car which is fitted
up with a tub and four shower baths. These are available for
the use of the men under suitable regulations. A power plant
placed in this car furnishes light for the camp and a boiler
furnishes steam heat for the buildings.
The office, commissary, and foreman's and storekeeper's
quarters are placed in a single car, while a storage car holds
supplies for the commissary and package goods for the kitchen.
Running water is provided for the camp whenever a gravity
supply is available.
Floating Camps. — The camps used in the c\press region on
pullboat operations are built on scows, and are usually two-
CAMPS
67
storied buildings in which the entire camp is fed and housed. A
portion or all of the lower floor may be devoted to the kitchen,
dining-room and foreman's quarters, while the upper floor is
used to house the men and is generally divided into two sec-
tions to accommodate white and colored laborers.
A store building is moored so close to the main camp that
the two can be connected by a gangplank.
Fig. II. — A Floating Camp on a Cypress Operation. The dining-room and
office are on the ground floor and the sleeping quarters are in the second story.
The building on the left is the commissary. Louisiana.
Floating camps are tied up along the banks of bayous or of
canals near the logging operation, and the men go to and from
work in dug-out canoes called "pirogues" which are propefled
with paddles.
BOARDING DEPARTMENT
A well-conducted boarding department is an essential in every
successful camp where the logger must furnish subsistence to
his workmen.
68
LOGGING
The more progressive loggers secure the best cooks obtainable
to take charge of their boarding department, since the season's
success usually depends on a constant supply of labor which
cannot be retained unless good wholesome food is provided.
The kitchen force in a camp is in charge of a head cook, who
controls the conduct of the kitchen and dining-room. An
efficient man whom the company desires to retain is furnished
any supplies he requests. A competent cook can prepare food
for from 80 to 100 men, but for a greater number there should be
an assistant. The cook has helpers called flunkies or cookees,
who wait on table, peel potatoes, wash dishes and perform any
odd jobs around the kitchen. One flunky to every twenty-five
men is the general rule.
In addition every camp has a chore boy who cleans up the
men's quarters, cuts firewood, builds fires and carries water for
the men's camp, and sometimes cleans the stables.
Since it is customary to feed the entire crew at one time a
camp requires a large amount of dining-room ware. Kitchen
utensils may be of iron, tin or granite ware. Dining plates,
cups and serving vessels are preferably of heavy granite ware,
although some companies use heavy china plates. The cutlery
is of steel with plain wooden handles.
The following list shows the equipment used in a northern
camp where sixty men were fed :
I six-hole cooking range
4 bean pots
13 bread pans
4 butcher knives
1 chopping bowl
4 "dutch" ovens
80 half-pint cups
74 forks
74 knives
24 ladles
10 molasses jugs
10 mixing spoons
2 mixing pans
5 ten-quart pans
24 pepper and salt shakers
74 spoons
3 sieves
3 wash boilers
9 lunch buckets
2 bake pans
4 beef boilers
7 baking pans
7 coffee boilers
I chopping knife
3 long-handled dippers
3 frying pans
7 iron kettles
1 porcelain kettle
2 meat grinders
1 nutmeg grater
1 2 three-quart pans
10 two-quart pans
18 pails
86 plates
2 skimmers
16 wash basins
I washboard
The total value of the above camp equipment is from $200 to
$225.
CAMPS
69
Rations. — The quantities of different foodstuffs that enter
into two rations are as follows:
Article.
Fresh meat
Cured meat
Lard
Flour
Corn meal
Baking powder
Sugar
Coffee
Tea, chocolate or cocoa
Butter
Oleomargarine
Dried fruits
Rice or beans
Potatoes or other fresh vegetables
Salt
Peas
Molasses
Pickles.
Vinegar
Milk, condensed
Canned vegetables or fruit
Spices
Flavoring extracts
Pepper or mustard
Unit.
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Potmds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Gallons
Quarts
Quarts
Cans
Cans
Ounces
Ounces
Ounces
100 rations.
(I)
100
50
15
80
15
5
40
100
4
30
4
4
8
(2)
36
130
8.2
1.85
34
2.8
1-3
1.6
13-7
35
162
6.5
4-2 =
0.60
(i) U. S. Geological Survey.
(2) Maine logging camp.
The cost of feeding men in logging camps usually ranges from
45 to 65 cents per day.
Commissary supplies and animal feed are usually hauled into
northern camps during the late fall and early winter on tote sleds.
Where good roads are available, supplies are occasionally
wagoned in during the summer. A two-horse team will haul
about 1500 pounds of supplies daily for a distance of twenty
miles on a sled, while a team of four horses will seldom haul
more than 1000 pounds on a wagon. The toting charge ranges
from 15 to 60 cents per 100 pounds. SuppHes for railroad camps
are brought in as needed.
70- LOGGING
CAMP HYGIENE
Many camps have no system of medical supervision and are
far removed from hospitals or other facilities of this character;
therefore, it is essential that the logger take every possible pre-
caution to prevent disease on account of the danger of epidemics
which may depopulate the camp either through sickness or the
general exodus of workmen fearful of a disease. The greatest
care must be exercised during the warm months when bowel
troubles are prevalent, a frequent cause of which is poorly cooked
or tainted food. Such diseases may largely be guarded against
by supplying pure drinking water, by burning or burying all
kitchen and stable refuse, and by providing tight latrines, so that
flies cannot infect the food supply. It is imperative that all meat
and other suppHes be kept in screened enclosures, and if flies are
abundant the kitchen and dining-room also should be screened.
Such precautions are not expensive and often will avert serious
sickness in camp.
The sleeping quarters should be well lighted and ventilated,
and where many men are quartered in one building each work-
man should have 250 cubic feet of air space and 25 square feet of
floor space. Where a large number of men are housed in one
building it should be disinfected at least once a week. Personal
cleanhness should be enforced, but this can only be done when
suitable bathing quarters and laundry equipment are provided.
Underclothing should be washed each week, since by doing so
the men are kept in better health and the danger of wound infec-
tion from cuts is greatly lessened. A practice exists in some
regions of hiring a man to do laundry work, charging each laborer
a stated price. This is considered a better method than requir-
ing the men to wash their own clothing because of the difficulty
of enforcing this rule, and also because Sunday, which is the only
available day for washing, is needed by the men for relaxation
and rest.
MEDICAL ATTENTION
Lumber companies in some sections, particularly the South,
where logging camps are located near the manufacturing plant,
CAMPS 71
maintain medical staffs and hospitals to care for their employees.
This is especially the case where the town in which the plant
is situated is controlled by the lumber company. Employees
are charged a certain sum per month for medical attention,
averaging $1.25 for married men and 75 cents for single men.
The hospital fees are small and cover only the cost of board.
The doctors visit the camp at stated intervals and are subject
to call at any time for the treatment of persons critically ill or
seriously injured.
The medical staff may be employed by the company on a
salary basis, or the doctors may be allowed all fees, except 10
per cent retained by the company for collection.
In some of the western states the loggers' unions make arrange-
ments with hospitals for the care of sick or injured members,
each of whom by the payment of a monthly fee of 50 or 75 cents
becomes eUgible for a ticket which insures him medical atten-
tion. The hospitals which are located in a number of the
larger cities in the Inland Empire and on the Pacific Coast are
not controlled by the unions. The medical benefits of the unions
do not extend to the camps.
CHAPTER VI
WOODWORKERS' TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
AXES
An ax head consists of two parts: namely, the bit or cutting
edge and the head or poll. The latter has an eye into which is
fitted the helve or handle. There are several types of axes, chief
among which are the felUng ax, the broadax and the turpentine
ax.
Felling Ax. — This is used for felling, log-making, swamping
and other chopping work. The head is made in a variety of
patterns and of several weights. It tapers from the poU to
the bit and has either smooth, slightly concave or beveled
sides. The eye is oval-shaped and has a larger diameter on the
side opposite the handle in order that a wedge may be inserted in
the handle head. The head may have one or two cutting edges.
The former is known as a single-bitted and the latter as a double-
bitted ax. A single-bit is in common use where a Ught ax is
required, where a single cutting blade is needed, or where the
ax is to be used for striking. A double-bitted ax is service-
able where a woodsman has need of a sharp cutting edge, and at
times must cut dry knots and other material that quickly dull
the tool. It is a favorite with swampers and some sawyers prefer
it for driving wedges.
Bits are made of steel and are either straight or curved.
They must be properly tempered for if too soft the edge will
turn and if too hard it will break.
The weight of the head depends on the character of work that
is to be performed and the personal ideas of the laborer. For
felhng in ordinary timber a head weighing from 3J to 4 pounds
is generally used. This is somewhat lighter than those used by
swampers and others who cut limbs and brush, snipe logs and
perform similar work.
72
WOODWORKERS' TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
73
a -Double-bitted A:xe.
b Single-bitted Axe.
C -Turpentine Ase. "
d - Broad Ase.
The handles for single-bitted axes are either curved or straight,
tht choice being largely one of individual preference. Handles
are preferably of second-growth hickory, but if made by the
camp blacksmith they are often of hard maple. In the eastern
part of the United States loggers
generally choose a 36-inch handle,
while on the Pacific Coast where
large timber is felled, the lengths
range between 38 and 40 inches
for the average size timber, up
to 44 inches for the massive red-
woods. Handles for double-bitted
axes are straight in order that
either bit may be used. They
are made in the same lengths as fig. 12. — Characteristic Types of
those for single-bitted axes. Ax Heads.
Single-bitted ax heads cost from 60 to 75 cents each; double-
bitted ax heads from 80 cents to $1.
A straight-grained ax handle of the best quality costs from
20 to 25 cents; a turned handle, from 7 to 10 cents.
Broadax. — The broadax is used for hewing timbers and cross-
ties, and performing like work. The more common form has
a reversible bit, ii| or 12 inches long, a heavy square poll and
a fiat inner face. It may be used either right-handed or left-
handed. The outer side has a slightly concave face and a cut-
ting bevel I of an inch wide on the bit. The usual weight of
the head is 6 or 7 pounds. Handles are preferably of second-
growth hickory and are from 26 to 36 inches long with a shght
upward curve immediately behind the eye which enables the
workman to assume a more upright position and still retain a
correct cutting angle for the blade.
Turpentine Ax. — A special form of ax is used in southern pine
forests for cutting the "boxes" or receptacles in the bases of the
trees in which the crude turpentine is collected.
It is made in two patterns, namely, the square poll and the
round poll, the type used being a matter of personal choice. The
chief feature of a turpentine ax is a long, narrow bit which
74
LOGGING
enables the cutting of a deep but narrow incision. The usual
dimensions are: length, ii| or 12 inches; width of blade, 3^
inches. The weight averages 5^ or 6 pounds. Straight hickory-
handles 36 inches in length are considered best.
SAWS
Saws are made in a variety of lengths and widths of blade,
and in numerous shapes and patterns of teeth to meet special
requirements and to conform to the preferences of certain
locaUties.
The Blade. — In small- and medium-sized timber a 6- to 6|-foot
saw is commonly used, while for the fir timber of the Pacific
Coast the saws range in length from 8 to 10 feet, with a maxi-
mum length of 18 feet in the redwood region. The width varies
with the pattern of the saw, and ranges from 4 to 8| inches.
A slightly curved saw blade is most frequently used because it
affords a larger space for sawdust. This makes it run wath less
friction and the work is less fatiguing. In order further to
reduce friction, saws are usually made thinner at the back than
at the cutting edge. Saws made for felhng large Pacific Coast
timber are often more Hmber than those used for log-making,
because the latter are operated by one man and a stiff saw is
needed to prevent the blade from buckling on the forward stroke.
The price of a saw is governed by its length and the quality
of steel. The following prices are approximate :
Length in feet.
Price per single blade.
61
8
10
12
18
$2.85- 3.50
3.50- 4.50
6.00- 8.00
9.00-10.00
15.00-16.00
Handles. — The handles used on cross-cut saws are round,
about i^ inches in diameter, and range in length from 12 to 18
inches. They are fastened either by clasps which fit into holes
in the ends of the saw, or by loops which fit over the ends of the
WOODWORKERS' TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
75
i5aw and are tightened by a screw inside the handle. Either form
permits ready removal from the blade. Handles cost from 15
to 75 cents a pair, the average price being about 25 cents.
Fig. 13. — Common Types of Cross-cut Saw Handles, a. Reversible saw handle
used in the Pacific Coast forests, b. Climax pattern saw handle, c. Hoop
handle.
Teeth. — The teeth on a cross-cut saw are arranged in pairs,
trios or quadruplets, each set of which is usually separated by a
cleaner or raker for removing the sawdust. Where skilful filers
are not available a saw without rakers is used, the sawdust being
carried out of the cut by the teeth. The forms of teeth preferred
are as follows: yellow pine, c\press and spruce — perforated
lance teeth, arranged in sets of four (Fig. 14a); white pine, hem-
lock and cedar — broad teeth in sets of two (Fig. 14b); poplar
and Cottonwood — heavy solid teeth in twos (Fig. 14c); redwood
- — solid lance teeth in twos (Fig. i4d) ; Douglas fir — soHd lance
teeth in fours (Fig. i4e); white oak — solid teeth in sets of three
(Fig. i4f).
The cutting teeth constitute a series of knives which strike the
fibres at right angles and sever them on either side of the cut.
The cleaners or rakers free the severed fibres which are ther
carried out in the cavities of the teeth in the form of sawdust
occupj-ing about six times as much space as the fibres did pre-
vious to cutting. Long, string}' sawdust denotes a well-fitted
saw.
Loose-textured and long-fibred woods are the most difficult to
76
LOGGING
saw because the teeth tear rather than cut the fibres, a larger
quantity of sawdust is produced, and the rough character of the
walls of the cut offers great resistance to the saw. Coniferous
wood is more readily sawed than hardwood, because of its simple
anatomical structure and fine medullar}' rays.
PERFECTION NO. 4
AfUJi/PJi/lfUOT
REX FALLING
&
fwuwiiwuwwv^ pinan4WT^^
REDWOOD KING
REDWOOD FALLING
WIMIMW™
EUREKA FALLING
^lWllfl[lW;
e e f
Fig. 14. — Saw Teeth Patterns, a. Often used for sawing yellow pine, c>T3ress
and spruce, b. For sawing white pine, hemlock and cedar, c. For sawing
poplar and cottonwood. d. For sawing redwood, e. For sawing Douglas fir.
/. For sawing white oak.
Experiments made by Gayer^ show the resistance to the saw
across the fibres of green timber to be as follows, the resistance
to beech being assumed as i.
Resistance to saw.
Scotch pine, silver fir and spruce. . . .
Maple, larch, alder
Beech
0.50-0.60
0. 75-0.90
I .00
1.03
I. 30-1. 40
1.80
Oak
Aspen and birch
Willow and poplar
^ Gayer, Karl: Forest Utilization (Vol. V, Schlich's Manual of Forestr>'; trans,
from the German by W. R. Fisher; 2nd ed.). London; Bradbury, Agnew and
Company, 1908.
WOODWORKERS' TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 77
Saw-fitting. — The cutting edges of the teeth are beveled to a
fine point, the degree of bevel depending on the character and
condition of the wood.
The filing and care of saw teeth is called "saw-fitting," and
requires skill and experience.
The tools that comprise a complete saw-fitting set for cross-
cut saws are as follows :
I combined tooth gauge, jointer and side file.
I saw set.
I tooth set gauge.
1 swage, or i set-hammer.
Several flat files. ^
A set of fifing tools costs from 50 to 75 cents.
Some of the essential features of a well-fitted saw are as
follows : -
(i) All cutting teeth must be the same length so that each
will do its share of the work.
(2) The rakers or cleaners should be not less than j^q- of an
inch nor more than ^^ of an inch shorter than the teeth.
(3) The form of tooth bevel required depends on the char-
acter of timber that is being sawed. It should not be too flat
for sawing frozen timber, very hard timber or wood that has
many tough knots. (See Fig. 15.)
(4) All teeth should be filed to a sharp point.
(5) Saws require a certain amount of "set," which consists
in springing out alternate teeth in one direction and the re-
mainder in the opposite direction so that the saw will cut a kerf
somewhat greater than the thickness of the blade. Dense-
fibred and frozen hardwoods require the least set, while pitchy
pine and soft broadleaf trees require the maximum. Only the
minimum set required should be given because the greater the
set the more power required to pull the saw.
^ Flat files from 6 to 8 inches long are preferred by saw fitters. The life of
a file depends on its quality; as a rule one good file will fit from 6 to 14 saws.
They cost from 7 to 9 cents for a 6-inch file, and from 9 to 12 cents for an 8-inch
file.
2 See Saw Fitting for Best Results. E. C. Atkins & Co. Indianai)olis,
Indiana.
78
LOGGING
Saws may be fitted by a member of the saw crew or by a
regular filer, who can fit from twelve to fifteen saws daily.
Where a greater number is required the work of fitting may
often be done to advantage in a filing shop at the camp.
e J S
Fig. 15. — The Forms of Bevel used on Cross-cut Saws. a. Diamond point bevel,
easy to maintain, and the point holds well. b. Bevel for a tooth where there
are no rakers, the teeth cleaning out the sawdust, c. Bevel for knots and
frozen timber where strength is needed in the extreme point — not adapted for
fast sawing, d. Round point for fast, smooth sawing, in knotty timber, e.
Bevel for fast, smooth sawing — teeth strong. /. Flat, thin bevel for soft wood
and fast sawing — point is not as strong as that shown in e. g. Bevel adapted
for general work. Ji. Bevel adapted for general work.
When the felling crew does the log-making, from one to two
sharp saws are provided each day, otherwise a sharp saw is
furnished every other day.
Saws filed daily are serviceable for a period of from two to
four months and are then turned over to road-making crews and
other laborers who do not require high-grade tools.
POWER FELLING MACHINES
There has not been a satisfactory power-driven tree-felling
machine placed on the market. Machines of various t>pes have
been patented and ofi'ered for sale but they have not proved of
practical value.
WOODWORKERS' TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 79
Among the devices invented in Europe was one consisting of
a platinum wire stretched in a frame fitted with insulated
handles. The wire was heated to white heat by an electric
current and then applied to the bole of the tree through which
it was designed to burn its way. It has never been introduced
in this country.
Another device that was patented consisted of a chisel-Hke tool
actuated by a power machine, which was intended to cut a
channel through the tree.
Other devices such' as drag saws and cross-cut saws operated
by steam or gasoline power have been devised, but they have
all been too heavy and bulky for transportation in the forest.
Their weight is not only a handicap in getting the machine around
through brushy woods and over rough bottom, but also pre-
vents their rapid removal from the vicinity of falling timber
where they are continually subject to damage.
POWER LOG-MAKING MACHINES^
On comparatively level land in an open forest composed of
large trees, air-driven drag saws, called "steam dagos" have
been used successfully for "bucking-up" logs.
The equipment consists of a traction engine with an air
compressor and an air storage tank. The saws which may be
attached readily to a log of any size are of the drag-saw type,
driven by a piston working from a small cylinder, mounted on
a metal frame weighing from 60 to 75 pounds. The cylinder is
connected with the air chamber on the engine by a line of hose
of sufficient length to give a working radius of 300 feet. Three
frames and one saw are the usual equipment for an outfit.
Another t>pe of log-making machine, patented in 1907, is
known as the Endless Chain Saw. The essential features of the
machine are an endless chain in which the links, represented by
saw teeth shaped like those of a cross-cut saw, are riveted to-
gether. The backs of the teeth fit into sprockets. The chain is
supported by a steel arm from 6 to 9 feet long, one end of which is
pivoted to the frame carrying the machinery. This arm carries
^ See page 100.
8o
LOGGING
Fig. i6. — The Endless Chain Saw used in Bucking-up Logs
in the Pacific Coast Forests.
a driving sprocket at the attached end and a blank sprocket at
the free end over which the chain travels. The arm is raised and
lowered by cables fastened to a hght metal derrick which is
mounted on the frame of the machine.
Power for driving the saw is furnished by a twenty- or thirty-
five-horse-power, four-cylinder gasoline engine, directly con-
WOODWORKERS' TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 8 1
nected to the driving shaft of the saw. The machine is mounted
on skids 13I feet long, shod with a light steel rail on which the
machine can be moved forward or backward for a working dis-
tance of 9I feet. This permits a number of cuts to be made at
each set-up of the machine.
The saw, mounted, weighs about 1200 pounds. The saw can
cut at any angle up to 90 degrees and is run at a speed of 2500
linear feet per minute, cutting a kerf one-half inch wide. The
manufacturers claim that the saw will sever a 6-foot log in
four minutes. The largest log that can be cut is 8| feet in
diameter.
The machine is dragged about and logs are rolled over by
means of a cable which is wound on a drum driven by the engine.
Jacks are used to level the track when the machine is used
on uneven ground.
WEDGES
An essential feature of every faller's and log-maker's equip-
ment is the wedge which is used to assist in directing the fall of
trees and to prevent the binding of the saw in the cut. They
are made either of metal or hardwood. Iron or steel wedges
may be made by the camp blacksmith, or purchased from dealers
in loggers' supplies at from 7 to 10 cents per pound.
U
/
Fig. 17. — Some Patterns of Wedges used by Loggers, a. A wood chopper's
wedge, b. Tie maker's and faller's wedge, c. Wood chopper's wedge, d.
Faller's wedge, e. Faller's wedge, Pacific Coast type. /. Log-maker's wedge.
Pacific Coast type.
The size and weight of metal wedges vary with the work for
which they are used, and the pattern is largely a matter of
individual choice. Felling wedges, especially when used in large
82 LOGGING
timber, are longer than those used for log-making. A common
form of metal wedge used on the Pacific Coast by fallers is made
from I -inch steel and is about 13 inches long and 3 inches wdde.
In ]VIaine the felHng wedges are shorter and may be shaped
somewhat like a hatchet head. They are 6 or 7 inches long,
3 inches vdde at the base, and i^ inches wide and i inch thick at
the top. On the Pacific Coast the buckers often employ a wedge
similar to the one used for felling, although the length seldom
exceeds 7 inches. In most regions fallers and log-makers use
the same type of wedge.
Since smooth-faced metal wedges are likely to rebound,
shallow grooves are often made on the faces so that when driven
into a cut the pressure causes the wood to fill the groove and
prevents any backward movement. The faces are sometimes
roughened slightly with a cold chisel to accomplish the same
purpose.
Hardwood w^edges of hickor}-, hard maple, beech, ironwood,
dogwood and persimmon are frequently used in the southern
pine regions where timber for their manufacture is accessible.
They are preferred because they are inexpensive and hold well
in a cut. They may be made by the sauyers as needed or by
contract at about 2 cents each. They are ordinarily 6 or 8 inches
long, 2I or 3I inches wide and i inch in thickness at the head.
Felling crews in the Northwest usually carr\' two long and
three short wedges; log-makers, five short -ones. In other re-
gions where the timber is of medium size the saw^^ers use from
two to four wedges. From twenty to forty wooden wedges per
month are required by a saw crew of two men.
]Metal wedges are often carried by the fallers in a small canvas
sack slung over the shoulder, or one is fastened at each end of a
piece of hay wire, 3 or 4 feet long. Wooden wedges are carried
in the pockets of the workmen.
MAULS AND SLEDGES
Iron wedges are generally driven by means of a wooden maul.
These are made by the camp blacksmith from hard maple, yellow
birch or any tough wood. A common form used in Maine is
WOODWORKERS' TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 83
made from a round tree section, 6 inches in diameter and from
26 to 30 inches long. An 8-inch head is left on one end of the
section and the remainder is trimmed down to a diameter of
2 inches to form a handle. The head may or may not be
bound with iron hoops to prevent splitting. Iron sledge
hammers of 4 or 5 pounds' weight are sometimes used in
place of mauls for driving metal wedges. Wooden wedges are
driven either with an ax or a sledge.
SPRING BOARDS
These are used only in the Northwest, and serve as plat-
forms on which notchers and fallers stand when performing
their work. The spring board with the spur uppermost is
:« 12^^ H
Fig. iS. — A Spring Board used b)^ Fallers in the Northwest.
thrust into a notch cut into the tree and when weight is appUed
to the outer end of the board the spur is forced into the wood
and prevents the board from slipping.
KILHIG OR SAMPSON
This tool is used as a lever to aid in directing the fall of a tree.
It consists of a pole 3 or 4 inches in diameter and from 8 to 16
feet long, either sharpened or armed on one end with a spike.
In operation the pointed end of the pole is placed in a notch
in the tree trunk from 5 to 8 feet above ground. The free end
projects downward to a point 10 or 12 inches above the ground
where it is supported on a peave}' handle or a pole the lower end
of which is firmly planted in the ground. A laborer grasps the
free end of the peavey handle and by pressing forward is able
to exert a very strong pressure against the bole of the tree.
Kilhigs are frequently made as needed by the saw crew since it
84
LOGGING
is easier to cut a pole than it is to carr}- one. This tool is in
common use in the Northeast. There are several patent tools
of similar character used in European forests but they have not
met with favor in this country.
Fig. 19. — A Kilhig or Sampson used in Directing the Fall of a Tree.
MEASURING STICKS
The measuring sticks carried by log-makers are usually 8 feet
long, where logs 24 feet and under are being cut. In the North-
west they are often 10 feet long. They may be made by the
sa"wyers from a straight sapling with little taper, or by the camp
blacksmith from squared sticks which are cut to exact length and
on which marks are placed at two-foot intervals. Unless measur-
ing sticks are metal-tipped, sawyers are apt to chop off one end
when marking log lengths on the bole.
PEAVEY
The peavey is used as a lever to handle logs, and is an indis-
pensable part of a logger's equipment. The standard maple or
ash handle is 5. 5^ or 6 feet long, but it may be made in special
WOODWORKERS' TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
85
CHISELBILL
lengths from 4^ to 8 feet. There are two types, namely, the
socket peavey and the cHp peavey.
The handle of the first is fitted into a socket, which is armed
on the lower end with a pike,
and on the upper end of the
socket is a clasp to which the
hook is bolted.
The second has a pike driven
into the end of the handle, which
is bound with a metal band to
prevent the wood from splitting.
The hook is attached to a clip
or clasp independent of the pike.
The hooks are of three types,
namely, ''round bill," "duck
bill" and ''chisel." The round
bill is preferred for summer
work because it does not stick in the log; the duck bill
is best for frozen timber as it will penetrate the wood more
readily than the other forms; the chisel point is in limited
use.
A peavey of standard form costs from $1.25 to $1.75.
ROUND BILL
HOOK
EiG. 20. — A Socket Peavev.
CANT HOOKS
Cant hooks are used for purposes similar to the peavey, al-
though they are employed more around
mills and in handling sawed timber than
in handhng logs. Standard handles are
4I, 5 and 5 1 feet in length. They are
shod on the end with a heavy band of
iron, carrying on its under side a "toe"
which replaces the pike on the peavey.
A hook of the same character as that on^
the peave}' is fastened to the handle by a
clasp.
A cant hook costs from $1 to $1.50.
Fig. 21. — A Cant Hook.
86
LOGGING
PICKAROON
Laborers engaged in bringing cross-ties, stave bolts and other
timber down steep slopes often use a pickaroon, which has a
handle 36 or 38 inches long on the end of which is attached a
head with a recurved pike. These heads are frequently made
from worn-out ax heads by removing a portion of the cutting
edge.
UNDERCUTTERS
The undercutter is a tool used by the ''bucker" or log-maker
in the Northwest. It serves as a support for the saw when
making an undercut on a fallen tree.
It consists of a round or flat rod of
iron about 2 feet long with a head on
one end and single or double claws on
the other. These claws are sharp and
are driven into the side of the bole.
Sliding on this rod is a block carr}dng
a milled wheel which can be raised or
lowered to accommodate the depth of
cut, and on this the back of the saw
Fig. 22.-A Tj-pe of Under- ^^^^^^ Buckers frequently dispense with
cutter used in the racmc
Coast Forests, a is the saw undercutters because of the annoyance
blade resting on the milled of carrying them.
wheel.
USE OF KEROSENE
In felhng coniferous woods resin collects on the saw and soon
causes it to bind. This is remedied by the use of kerosene.
Fallers and log-makers in the pine forests of the South carry a
pint bottle of kerosene, fitted with a stopper made from green
pine needles. The crew usually keeps a gallon can near at hand
from which to replenish its supply. At frequent intervals the
saw is sprinkled on both sides with the oil. A crew cutting from
12,000 to 15,000 feet log .scale daily will use from one and one-
half to three pints of kerosene. Four gallons per week is re-
garded as a Hberal allowance.
CHAPTER VII
FELLING AND LOG-MAKING
SEASON '
The period of the year in which felling is done is governed by
climatic conditions and by the method of logging followed.
Where loggers rely on a heavy snowfall to furnish a bottom
for transporting logs, felling begins in the late summer or early
fall and continues until the snow becomes too deep for profit-
able skidding, which is about the middle or latter part of
December.
On railroad operations in the Northern States felling is
carried on throughout the greater part of the year, ceasing only
when the snow becomes too deep for operation, or when deemed
advisable because of market conditions.
In the coniferous forests of the South and in the Northwest
felling is carried on the year round as weather conditions seldom
interfere with logging.
Hardwood felHng may continue throughout the year. Owing
to the fact that the sapwood of species such as hickory is subject
to insect damage^ if cut during the summer months, the season
of felling may be restricted to the resting period of the tree,
although hardwoods can be cut safely at any season if they are
manufactured in a short time and the lumber well piled and
seasoned. The galleries made in sapwood by insects furnish
^ Certain species of ambrosia beetles, sawyers and timber worms are very de-
structive to the sapwood of felled hardwood and coniferous timber during a portion
of the year. The danger of attack is greatest in timber cut during the fall and
winter and left on the ground or in close piles during the early spring and summer;
also in trees cut during the warm season. The presence of bark is necessary for
infestation by most of these insects and the danger can be largely avoided by not
allowing the logs to accumulate during the danger season, or by barking such as
cannot be removed within a few weeks. (A detailed discussion of these problems
may be found in various publications of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology.)
87
88 LOGGING
the means of entrance for the spores of certain fungi ^ which
cause a discoloration. The fungi develop most rapidly during
warm, sultry weather. Summer-felled timber may be very seri-
ously damaged by insects and fungi in from two to four weeks.
The felling time of trees, such as oak, is sometimes restricted
to the late summer and early fall if the timber is to be trans-
ported by water because heav}' species cut at this season and
.allowed to dr\' for from sixty to ninety days wdll float.
The logging of hemlock is restricted to the period between
May and August, at which time only the bark can readily be
removed. As it is a valuable by-product, used for tanning pur-
poses, the logger cannot afford to cut the timber without saving
the bark.
Tanbarks are also secured from chestnut oak {Qiiercus prinus)
and from the tanbark oak of California {Quercus densiflora) . The
season for peehng chestnut oak is from early April until the end
of June, and for tanbark oak, from the middle of May to the
middle of July. The timber in both cases is now used for com-
mercial purposes, although the bark is the more valuable product.
Coppice fellings should be made during the winter and early
spring because the sprouts are then more thrifty than those from
trees cut during the growing period."' Late winter felling is
preferred because there is less chance for the bark to be loosened
from the stool by the collection and freezing of moisture.
The season of the year in which timber is cut does not, so far
as known, influence its strength, although it may affect its dura-
bility. Hardwoods are more complex in structure and are more
easily damaged in seasoning than are softwoods. Winter-felled
hardwood timber air dries more satisfactorily than summer-felled
timber because the water content evaporates slowly and the
woody structure adapts itself to the gradual shrinkage with a
minimum amount of checking.
^ There are several genera of fungi which attack the sapwood of deciduous and
coniferous woods, causing a bluish, blackish or reddish discoloration. The infec-
tion takes place largely through spores carried by insects into the galleries that have
been made by ambrosia beetles, sawyers and other borers.
2 See Chestnut in Southern :\Iaryland, by Raphael Zon. Bulletin No. 53,
U. S. Bureau of Forestry, 1904, pp. 14-17.
FELLING AND LOG-MAKING 89
DEADENING
Deadening or girdling consists in cutting a ring around the
tree deep enough to penetrate to the heartwood. This ring is
made just above the root swelhng, approximately at the sawing
point.
The deadening of trees reduces the water content of the boles
and renders them lighter in weight. It is seldom resorted to
with most species, because those which cannot be floated when
cut in the ordinary way are either left standing or are railroaded
to the mill. The greater part of the c^'press timber will not
float in a green condition, hence deadening or girdling is almost
universal because a large per cent of the timber must be taken
to the mill by water, due to the absence of railroad facihties.
Even where cypress timber is railroaded it is usually girdled be-
cause (i) the logs will then float in the mill pond, (2) the sap-
wood is rendered somewhat tougher and skidding tongs do not
pull out so readily, and (3) the heartwood in green timber swells
during cutting and binds the saw.
Logging in cypress swamps is carried on at all seasons of the
year and some girdle timber at any convenient time, although
the sapwood is more subject to insect attacks at certain seasons.
The greatest damage occurs during the months from May to Sep-
tember, inclusive.^ Girdling, which precedes felling from a few
weeks to several months, is generally done by contract for 7 or
8 cents per tree. One man will girdle about twenty-five trees
per day.
DIRECTION OF FALL
This should be governed by the following factors :
(i) The lean of the tree. By the use of wedges a straight
tree may be sawed to fall in any direction. Heavily leaning
trees can be thrown by the same means in any one of three
directions, namely, as it leans or to either side. Where a tree
leans only slightly and its inclination cannot be determined
readily by the eye, an ax handle held suspended like a plumb
' Hopkins, A. D.: Pinhole Injury to Girdled Cypress in the South Atlantic
States. U. S. Bureau of Entomology, Cir. No. 82, 1907.
90 LOGGING
line between the line of sight and the tree will serve as an
indicator.
In determining the direction of fall the choice is influenced by
the shape of the crown. Very few crowns are symmetrical,
one side often being heavier than the other, because of better
light conditions. This preponderance of weight on one side acts
as a powerful lever and, therefore, must be considered by the
faller.
(2) The avoidance of lodging one tree in another.
(3) The selection of a spot where the bole will not be broken
on stumps, rocks or other objects. This requires special atten-
tion in handhng large or brittle timber. In yellow pine the loss
from this source may be i per cent of the total, while in western
red cedar it is often from 15 to 20 per cent, and in redwood
even greater. Boles of the latter are sometimes so badly
damaged in felling that they are worthless. A bed for redwood
is frequently made by leveling the ground and covering it with
brush.
(4) The simplification of skidding work. In brushy regions
it is desirable to fell trees parallel to the skidding trail, since this
aids the teamster in getting out the logs. Timber cut for
snaking with power skidders should be felled away from or
toward the direction of haul, especially if long timber is being
handled, because it is difficult to drag out logs that are otherwise
placed. Timber on slopes should be felled either up or down ac-
cording to the location of the nearest accessible skidding trail.
Trees felled up steep slopes are less subject to breakage because
the distance of fall is less. It is, however, a more dangerous
method because the trees may shoot down the slope.
ORGANIZATION OF CREWS
The organization of crews for felling and log-making differs in
the various forest regions. Sawyers in the Lake States often
work in crews of two under the direct charge of a saw boss, who
keeps a close check on the work, assigns each crew to a given
territory, specifies the length of logs and sees that waste does not
occur in cutting. The logs are prepared ready for the swamper.
FELLING AND LOG-MAKING 9 1
In southern pine operations a similar plan may be followed,
the sawy^ers being responsible to the logging boss or to a con-
tractor instead of a saw boss; or two or three saw crews may be in
charge of a sub-foreman, called a ''chipper and notcher," who
notches trees for felling, marks off the log lengths, and keeps a
record of the amount cut by each crew. The duty of the sawyers
is to fell the timber and to cut it up into logs.
In Maine felling is often in charge of a sub-foreman called
the "head chopper" who is the boss of a yarding crew, which
includes two fallers, the swampers, teamster, sled tender and
skidway man. The head chopper notches the trees, lays off the
log lengths and directs the work of the yarding crew.
On the Pacific Coast notching, felling and log-making are
often performed by separate crews. A notcher, who selects -the
trees to be felled and makes the undercut, is assigned to each
yarding crew. Two fallers then cut the timber and the notcher
marks off the log lengths for the guidance of the buckers who
follow. The latter work singly, and two or three are required for
each felling crew. On some operations a notcher is not employed,
the undercut being made by the fallers.
The average day's work for two men felling, bucking and
swamping lodgepole and other small timber, running from fifteen
to sixteen logs per thousand, is from 4000 to 5000 feet; in small
yellow pine timber, running from twelve to fifteen logs per
thousand, from 7000 to 7500 feet, and where logs run from six
to ten per thousand, from 10,000 to 15,000 feet. On the Pacific
Coast an undercutter will notch from 30,000 to 50,000 feet of
fir daily for a crew of fallers. Buckers average from 12,000 to
15,000 feet each.
Contract felHng and log-making in lodgepole pine ranges from
$1.25 to $2 per thousand feet; in yellow pine and cypress, from
35 to 50 cents; in fir, from 50 to 80 cents.
CUTTING AREAS
Sawyers working on a wage basis are seldom assigned to
specific bounds, but cut where the foreman of the camp or the
saw boss directs. In regions where the work is done by contract,
92
LOGGING
fallers ma}' be assigned to definite bounds in order to facilitate
the measurement of the cut timber.
NOTCHING
A wedge-shaped notch or undercut is made on the trunk in
the direction of fall, to guide the tree and to prevent the bole
from sphtting before it is completely severed from the stump.
It has a horizontal base extending slightly past the center of the
Fig. 23. — The Undercut on a Large Douglas Fir Tree. The fallers are standing
on spring boards to enable them to make the cut above the root swelling.
Washington.
tree if felling is done with the ax. and from one-fifth to one-
fourth of the diameter when felling is done with the saw. The
undercut on trees that lean heavily in the felling direction is
made deeper than usual in order to insure a clean break. On
those that lean away from the felling direction a small notch is
cut because it gives the wedges greater power. In felling large
redwood the sloping face of the undercut is sometimes made
below the horizontal cut instead of above it in order to avoid
FELLING AND LOG-MAKING 93
the waste of timber which would occur if the usual method were
followed.
The notch should be placed about 4 inches below the point
at which the feUing cut is started on the opposite side. Its
height above ground is determined entirely by the policy of the
logger regarding stump heights. Notches are generally cut with
the ax, but the horizontal cut may be made by a saw and the
notch completed with an ax.
On small- and medium-sized timber the notch can readily be
cut by a workman standing on the ground. On account of root
swellings and defective and pitchy butts of the large Pacific
Coast timber, it is the practice to cut the trees at a height of
several feet above the ground. A form of scaffold must be pro-
vided for notching and felling large timber and for this purpose
spring boards are generally used. In redwood logging where
trees of very large size are cut the spring board may be replaced
by a scaffold supported either on spring boards or timbers.
FELLING
With the Ax. — The ax was used almost exclusively as a felling
tool during the early period of logging in the United States and
is still used extensively for small trees. In felling with an ax,
the operation begins by cutting a wedge-shaped notch opposite
and slightly higher than the undercut. This cut is continued
towards the center of the bole until the tree falls. Wedges can-
not be used in felling with the ax, therefore, it is more difficult to
throw a tree in any direction except that in which it leans. It is
estimated that from 10 to 20 board feet per tree of spruce is lost
when the ax is used exclusively for felling and log-making.
With the Ax and Saw. — This method is now almost univer-
sally used for medium and large timber because a loss of both
time and wood occurs in using the ax alone. The use of a cross-
cut saw increases by about 10 per cent the number of trees a
given saw crew can fell in a day.
The saw-cut is started on a level with or slightly above and
opposite the undercut. When the saw has buried itself, wooden
or iron wedges are driven in behind it to prevent binding. As
94 LOGGING
sawing proceeds the wedge point is made to follow the back of
the saw by occasional blows. Sawing in a direction parallel
with the undercut progresses until the tree begins to fall, where-
upon one saw^'Cr withdraws the saw and both seek a place of
safety. On very large timber fallers first saw deeply on both
sides of the undercut, then saw around the tree, making the last
cut on the back side of the bole parallel to the undercut.
Trees with rotten hearts require different treatment from
sound ones because the decayed bole is apt to give away before it
is severed from the stump. A cut a few inches deep is made
around the tree and then the bole is severed from the rear as in
felHng sound timber. Even if the bole gives away before the cut
is completed it seldom splits badly. Felling during high winds
is accomplished in the same manner. The direction of fall under
either of the above circumstances often cannot be determined
accurately, and the work is considered hazardous.
When timber is felled in a direction other than that in which
it leans the faller leaves the most wood between the saw-cut and
the undercut on the side opposite to that in which the tree leans.
This tends to pull the tree in the desired direction.
STUMP HEIGHTS
There is no rule other than a commercial one regulating
stump heights in different sections of the country. Loggers in
early days cut very high stumps in order to avoid root swelling,
pitchy butts and other defects.
The greatest waste from this source occurred in the Pacific
Coast forests where stumps sometimes from 15 to 18 feet high
were left by the early logging operators. Twelve thousand feet
of merchantable timber per acre was not an excessive amount to
be wasted in this manner. At the present time sound stumps
seldom exceed 3 or 4 feet in height. Coniferous species, like
western larch, often are so pitchy in the butt that from 4 to 6 feet
must be left in the stump when the timber is to be transported
by water. In the yellow pine forests of the South the stumps
are cut from 12 to 24 inches high; in the spruce region of the
Northeast they are often from 12 to 15 inches.
FELLING AND LOG-MAKING 95
The tendency in all sections is to reduce the height of stump
on sound timber to the lowest point practicable. It is not
profitable to cut a low stump on most species when the butt is
rotten, because a large portion of it may be trimmed off and
thrown away during the process of manufacture. Saws cannot
be kept as sharp on very low stumps as on those of medium height
since grit dulls the saw, especially in a sandy soil. Sawyers
cutting very low stumps cannot cut as much timber per day
because the work is more fatiguing. The decrease in the cut
of a saw crew due to low stumps may reach 1 5 per cent in medium-
sized timber.
The general rule on the National Forests is that the stumps
shall not exceed 18 inches in height. Lower stumps may be
required at the discretion of the inspectors. The stump height
on slopes should be determined at the contour line.
LOG-MAKING
Utilization of the Tree. — The bole is the most valuable portion
of the tree except in such instances as the curly stumps of black
walnut and other species which are highly esteemed for cabinet
work. In many localities rough tops and limbs are cut to a
diameter of from 2 to 4 inches for firewood, charcoal burning and
destructive distillation. Faggots are not utilized to any extent
in this country.
The portion of the bole utilized is influenced by the location
of the timber with reference both to the manufacturing plant
and to markets. The lumberman with accessible timber may be
able to handle low-grade logs which an operator with a less
favorable location could not handle profitably.
The transportation charge for carrying lumber to markets
is also a powerful factor in determining the extent of utilization,
inasmuch as all grades of a given species pay the same rate and
where the latter is high, low grades cannot be shipped at a profit.
An interesting example is that of the shortleaf and longleaf
pines of the South. Both species are usually sold at the same
price f.o.b. at a given mill, but since longleaf weighs more per
96 LOGGING
thousand feet, in some cases 300 pounds on a given item, the
freight charge to marliet is greater and hence shortleaf can be
shipped to more distant markets, or a lower average grade can
be manufactured and the same profits secured as in the case of
longleaf.
Crooks, knots, pitch, worm holes and other defects are factors
that influence the amount of bole taken. The extent and char-
acter of the defects that a log may contain and still be mer-
chantable is governed by the species and the use to which the
timber is to be put. Chestnut lumber containing many "pin-
worm holes" has a market value both for veneer backing and
for the manufacture of tanning extract if the timber is otherwise
sound. On the other hand, oak with similar defects brings a low
price because its physical properties do not fit it for many pur-
poses. Defective logs of white pine, yellow poplar and other
woods suitable for making high-priced box material may be
utiHzed because the lumber is cut into short lengths and the
unsound portions ehminated, while logs of yellow pine with
similar or fewer defects are frequently valueless for this purpose
because the wood is hea\y, making higher freight charges on the
package, and yellow pine crates, when placed in cold storage,
taint dairy products, eggs and certain other foodstuffs.
The amount of bole taken depends on the ultimate use of
the timber. This is well illustrated in cutting white oak for
rived stave bolts which are split along the line of the medullar}'
rays. Since the timber must be straight-grained and free from
knots, only the choicest cuts are taken and a large part of the
bole is often left in the forest.
Market conditions are a potent factor in regulating the mini-
mum size and character of timber that can be handled profitably.
High-grade logs produce a sufficient percentage of low-grade
lumber to supply a duU market, while a brisk demand enables
the logger to bring out a large per cent of his inferior material
because it can be sold for enough to cover the cost of manufac-
ture and yield a small profit. Close utihzation will not be
general until the pubhc is prepared to pay higher prices for
lumber.
FELLING AND LOG-MAKING 97
Log Lengths. — Builders consider even lengths of from 10 to 24
feet most advantageous and these have come to be recognized in
lumber markets as standard. Mills handling small- and medium-
sized timber, which is skidded by animals, cut their logs into
the above lengths in the forest, while those manufacturing long
timbers or using power skidding machines either bring in logs
varying from 24 to 60 feet in length or the entire bole to a top
diameter of from 4 to 6 inches. These logs may be cut into
shorter lengths at the railroad or landing but delivery at the mill
of long logs or entire boles is considered more desirable since it
precludes a loss in crooked timber by improper division in the
forest. An experienced man at the mill can cut the boles into
log lengths more rapidly and economically with a power machine
than can the sawyer in the woods using a cross-cut saw, and
special orders for unusual lengths can be filled without loss of
time.
Logs to be rafted down large streams should be cut into
long lengths because the raft can be built stronger and
cheaper.
The transportation of long logs out of the forest is destructive
to young growth because their length requires considerable
swamping for animal transportation, and when a ground system
of power skidding is used a large amount of young growth is
broken or bruised before the log reaches the run down which it
passes to the machine.
The "board" mills in the yellow pine region cut logs into
standard lengths, a large percentage being 12, 14 and 16 feet.
The "timber" mills cut longer logs to meet their special re-
quirements.
Cypress operators who railroad their timber to the mill cut
logs into standard lengths between 10 and 20 feet. On pull-
boat operations where logs are floated to the mill the whole trunk
or 30- to 50-foot logs are skidded.
Hardwood logs rafted down the Ohio River and other large
streams are cut into lengths of from 40 to 60 feet, while on small
streams and on railroad operations standard length logs are the
rule.
98 LOGGING
In the Adirondacks spruce logs which are to be manufac-
tured into lumber are largely cut into lengths of lo, 12, 13, 14
and 16 feet, and those for pulp manufacture into even lengths
of 14 feet or more. In Maine spruce is cut either into standard
lengths, or the butt cut is made from 30 to 40 feet long and the
remainder left in a top log which is taken to a diameter of 4 or
5 inches.
White pine is largely cut into standard lengths.
Douglas iir on the Pacific Coast is cut into logs ranging in
length from 24 to 60 feet and sometimes longer. The customary
lengths range up to 40 feet with a high percentage of 32-foot logs.
Fir is well adapted for the manufacture of long timbers, and
supplies a large share of the demand for such material.
In the redwood region about one-fourth of the logs are cut
16 feet long. The remainder are cut into lengths of 18, 20, 24,
32 and 40 feet. The longer lengths are cut from the smaller
trees.
Method. — The first step in log-making is to cut the limbs
from that portion of the bole which is to be utilized. This is
done with an ax by a member of the saw crew or by a special
man called a swamper, knotter or limber. The bole is then
laid off into log lengths by the head sawyer or by the "chipper"
who uses an 8 -foot or lo-foot measuring stick.
In log-making there are several problems which the workmen
must solve depending on the position of the felled tree.
(i) When the log hes flat on the ground, bucking-up is a
simple matter as the sa\r)'ers start their cut on the lower or
upper part of the bole at the marked point and continue until
the log is severed from the bole. When the saw begins to bind
wedges are driven into the cut and made to follow the saw by
an occasional blow from an ax or maul.
(2) When the bole is supported at one end, care must be
exercised to avoid splitting slabs from the under side. This is
accomphshed by making a cut 2 or 3 inches deep on the under
side of the bole. In addition the log may have its free end sup-
ported by a false work of logs, or by a heavy stick placed in a
vertical position directly under it. The saw-cut is then started
FELLING AND LOG-MAKING 99
on the upper face and continued until the log breaks ofif from
its own weight.
(3) When the bole is supported at both ends the cut is
usually started on the under side and continued until it ex-
tends one-half or two-thirds of the distance through the log.
A cut is then started on the upper side of the bole and con-
tinued until the log is severed. The bole is often supported by
heavy sticks placed in a vertical position under both sides of
the cut.
(4) When the bole is sprung between trees or stumps the
general practice is to make a deep cut on the concave face and
then to saw or chop on the outer face. Caution is required
where trees are badly strained because they may break with
considerable force and injure the workmen.
In small- and medium-sized timber it is generally the duty
of the felHng crew to cut the bole into logs as soon as the tree
has been felled. An exception to this occurs where the bark of
trees such as hemlock, chestnut oak and tanbark oak are sought
for tanning purposes. In this case the felling of the trees and
the stripping of the bark are done by a crew whose work may
precede the actual logging operation by several weeks. Log-
making under these circumstances is often done by a separate
crew.
Log-making in the large timber of the Pacific Coast has been
developed along special lines. The large size of the timber
prevents the use of a two-man crew unless a scaffold is constructed
on which the men can stand. This is not necessary because one
man with a 7- to 9-foot single-handled saw can cut logs to ad-
vantage by standing on the ground. He starts his cut with the
saw at an angle and gradually brings it towards the horizontal
as it nears the bottom of the log. Thick-barked timber requires
special preparation before bucking-up because the bark is a great
hindrance to the bucker. The practice in redwood forests is to
remove the bark from the log and when the refuse is dry to burn
over the area. Bucking-up is then carried on by one man as
described. The bark on Douglas fir logs tends to dull the saw
and is removed along the line of the saw-cut.
lOO LOGGING
Wedges are used to keep the saw from binding and kerosene
is applied to the saw blade when necessary to free it from
pitch.
The equipment used for felhng and log-making in medium-
sized timber consists of a cross-cut saw, 6h feet long. \\'ith two
detachable handles; a double-bitted or single-bitted ax; two or
more wooden or iron wedges; a measuring stick; a bottle of
kerosene; and possibly a wooden maul or a sledge for dri\ing
wedges.
Similar equipment is used for large timber but the saws range
in length from 8 to i8 feet. Spring boards are also required
where high stumps are cut.
Power Bucking. — In the sugar pine forests of California hand
bucking is sometimes supplemented by the use of the power-
driven "steam dago."^ The engine is moved under its own
power to the vicinity of the felled trees which are to be cut into
logs. A saw frame and saw are adjusted at the cutting point
on the bole, the saw is then started and left to work automati-
cally while two other frames are being adjusted at other cuts.
Saws are nm at about 150 strokes per minute.
A swamping crew precedes the saw crew and trims the felled
trees, throwing the brush to one side to give room for the ma-
chines. There is a decided economy both of time and labor in
the use of the compressed-air machine. Nine men are required
to operate it and the daily capacity is from 125,000 to 140.000
board feet, with a maximum output under favorable circum-
stances of 160,000 feet. From fifteen to seventeen men would
be required to secure the same output with hand labor, and the
labor charge would considerably exceed the cost of operation and
maintenance of the machine. Some difficulty is experienced in
operating during cold weather because the moisture freezes on
the cyHnder and piston and interferes with the action of the
latter.
The endless chain saw^ is used to cut logs into shingle-bolt
lengths in the redwood forest region and also to cross-cut logs
at the mill. It is especially adapted for the former work,
1 See page 79.
FELLING AND LOG-:\L\KIXG lOI
where very large timber is to be cut into short lengths,
because several cuts can be made at each set-up of the
machine.
WASTE IN LOG-MAKING ^
Inefficient saw crews under improper supervision often cause
a waste of timber by careless selection of log lengths.
Crooks. — Waste nearly always occurs in the di\ision of
crooked boles. Crooks are more serious in small than in large
timber because the percentage of loss in slabbing at the mill is
much greater. Pronounced sweeps should be cut from the bole
and left in the woods and where the crook is not deep it should be
left on the end of the log where there will be the minimum loss in
manufacture. Crooked logs are more expensive to handle both
in the forest and at the mill than straight logs of the same diam-
eter and length because more time is required to skid, to load on
to the log cars and to handle them in the mill, and the actual
output secured is often from 20 to 75 per cent less.
Forked Trees. — Another source of waste is the cutting up of
forked trees. The chief faults of the sa^vv'ers in this regard are:
(i) FeUing the tree so that the lower fork is either imbedded
in the ground or so placed that it is difficult to saw it properly.
The line of least resistance is followed and the lower fork is left
or a portion of it sacrificed. (Fig. 24.)
(2) Cutting too far below the fork, thereby wasting mer-
chantable material.
(3) Cutting too far above the crotch, as shown in Fig. 24.
The bole should have been cut close up on both sides of the crotch
and the short section left in the woods.
It is unprofitable to bring logs with big forks to a mill because
the yield of lumber from them is not in proportion to the cost
of production. Forked logs require from two to fifteen times
longer to get into the mill and to be sawed into lumber than do
straight logs of the same diameter and length, and the yield from
them is often from 20 to 50 per cent less. A further loss is
^ See Prolonging the Cut of Southern Pine, by H. H. Chapman and R. C.
Bryant. Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1913.
I02
LOGGING
occasioned by the reduction of the mill output because of the
additional time spent on sawing such logs.
Improper Trimming Lengths. — Sufficient attention is not paid
to the length into which logs are cut. They should be a few
inches longer than the standard because in sawing large logs it
may be impracticable for the sawyers to cut exactly at right
angles to the length and, further, logs are often damaged on the
ends in skidding and in transit to the mill. This extra length is
trimmed off in the mill and gives a straight, bright end on each
Fig. 24. — A Forked Tree cut in a Wasteful Manner.
board. Three inches are regarded as sufficient for a log 16
inches and under in diameter and 4 inches for those of greater
diameter.
Workmen become careless and often do not cut 50 per cent of
the logs of the proper length. Where less than 2 inches is left
for trimming length, the board is usually reduced 2 feet in length
at the mill, while on boards that are several inches too long the
loss is also great. Inaccuracy in measurements is due to careless
marking with the stick and to the use of a measure shortened
by accidentally chipping off the end with the marker's ax.
FELLING AXD LOG-AL\KING 103
The result of measuring 1000 logs on the skidway of a southern
yellow pine operation showed that only 426 logs were of the
proper length, while 240 were too short and 333 were from i
to II inches too long. The excess on the ends of several logs
was often sufficient to have secured an additional 2 feet of mer-
chantable material had the bole been carefully divided.
Disregard of Quality. — Log-makers frequently do not give
sufficient attention to securing quahty as well as quantity.
Where timber has large limbs the general practice is to leave the
greater part of the tops in the woods because lumber of low grade
only can be secured from them. Log-makers frequently exercise
poor judgment in cutting trees into logs and often fail to appor-
tion the bole so that the best portion and the knotty portion are
kept in separate logs. It is not uncommon to find from 6 to 10
feet of clear bole put into a log with several Hnear feet of knotty
material. This policy is costly because the value of the log is
largely determined by its poorest section. The universal rule
should be to divide the bole so that the clear material will be
kept separate from the rough and defective. It may often prove
more profitable to waste a few feet of rough log if by so doing the
amount of high-grade lumber can be increased.
Fig. 25. — Waste in a Top resulting from an Improper Selection of Log
Lengths.
Waste. — One form of waste commonly observed is shown
in Fig. 25. Log-makers seldom go above points where one or
more large limbs project out on one side (see X). If the log is
15 or more inches in diameter and one side is free from knots,
the cut should be extended 2 or 4 feet further up the tree, say to
"Y," if that distance gives the proper log length. The lower
side will yield clear lumber free from knots and cannot in any
way depreciate the value of the log content, while the lumber-
I04 LOGGING
man secures the additional material on the good half of the log
which otherwise would be wasted. If necessary, the portion
containing the large knots can be cut off in the mill by the
trimmer.
A loss usually occurs in cutting broken timber into logs by
making the saw-cut too far below the break. Where the break
is not square across it is often possible to obtain added material
by cutting the log so as to include a portion of the broken end.
This should always be done on large timber where the extra
section that can be secured is at least equal to one-half the diam-
eter of the log.
One of the most extensive wastes occurs in the tops when all
of the merchantable material below the larger limbs has not been
utilized. Sections of good timber from one to several feet in
length and of a quality equal to that taken are often left, usually
because the log-makers did not exercise judgment in dividing
the bole into the most economic log lengths. The loss from this
source often runs from 3.5 to 5 per cent of the total merchantable
stand and the annual loss on large operations amounts to thou-
sands of dollars, although it could be corrected by proper super-
vision.
Close utilization of the kind mentioned does not require the
operator to take material that he does not consider merchant-
able. A system by which timber is cut for quality as well as
quantity means an increase in the percentage of the higher grades,
more timber per acre and prolonged life to the operation.
BARKING OR ROSSING
Where logs of large size are skidded on dry ground, the bark
on the lower side is frequently removed to reduce friction.
This is termed "barking" or "rossing." During a wet season or
when power is used for skidding, rossing is frequently omitted.
In the Northeast the ends of long logs that are being yarded
on drag sleds are sometimes rossed on the under side when the
road is either level or upgrade, or the dragging hard.
In the Pacific Coast forests during the season when the bark
does not peel readily, the work is done, usually with a broad-
FELLING AND LOG-MAKING 105
ax, by a special member of the logging crew. During other
seasons a "spud" or peeler may be used.
In other sections of the country only the largest logs are
tossed. The work is generally done with an ax by a member of
the swamping crew. On heavy timber the barker not only
removes the bark but also straightens slight crooks by cutting
off sufficient wood to flatten the log so that when dragged, it
will remain in proper position.
Spruce logs intended for pulp manufacture are sometimes
entirely rossed in the forest because there is less wood wasted
than when the work is done by machinery at the mill.
Redwood logs are always rossed in the forest before the boles
are made into logs because the thickness of the bark and its
rough character not only impede log-making but are also a
hindrance in transportation.
SNIPING
Previous to skidding, the forward end of a large log is "sniped"
or "nosed." This consists of rounding off the under side of
the log so that it will not catch on obstructions. Where the
ground is rough and the log is likely to roll over, the entire front
end is sniped. This work may be done by a sniper or by one
of the swampers. The sniper generally prefers an ax with a 5-
to 6-pound head.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER VII
Braniff, Edward A.: Grades and Amounts of Lumber Sawed from Yellow
Poplar, Yellow Birch, Sugar Maple and Beech. Bui. No. 73, U. S. For.
Ser., Washington, D. C, 1906, pp. 20-21.
Cary, Austin: Practical Forestry on a Spruce Tract in Maine. Cir. 131,
U. S. Forest Service, pp. 5-6.
Chapman, H. H., and Bryant, R. C: Prolonging the Cut of Southern Pine.
Yale University Press, Bui. 2, Yale Forest School, New Haven, Conn.,
1913-
Clapp, Earle H.: Conservative Logging. Report of the National Conserva-
tion Commission with accompanying papers, 1909, pp. 512-546.
Graves, Henry S.: Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks. Bui. No. 26,
U. S. Div. of For., Washington, D. C, 1899, pp. 57-60.
Hedgecock, George Grant: Studies upon some Chromogenic Fungi which
discolor Wood. Missouri Botanical Garden, Seventeenth Annual Report,
St. Louis, Mo., 1906, pp. 59-114.
I06 LOGGING
Hopkins, A. D.: Practical Information on the Scolytid Beetles of North
American Forests. I. Barkbeetles of the Genus Dendroctonus. Bui.
No. 83, Part I, U. S. Bureau of Entomology, 1909.
: Insect Injuries to Forest Products. U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Yearbook, 1904, pp. 381-398.
Pinhole Injury to Girdled Cj^ress in the South Atlantic
and Gulf States. Cir. 82, U. S. Bureau of Entomology, 1907.
Peters, J. Girvin: Waste in Logging Southern Yellow Pine. Yearbook of
U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1905, pp. 483-494.
ScHRENK, Hermann von: The Bluing and Red Rot of the Western Yellow
Pine with special reference to the Black Hills Forest Reserve. Bui. No. 36,
U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, 1903.
CHAPTER VIII
MEASUREMENT OF LOGS AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
The common method of measuring the contents of logs is by
the board foot, although volume standards are also in use.
Firewood, acid wood, pulpwood, excelsior wood, stave bolts,
spool wood and novelty wood are ordinarily measured by the
cord (page 114). Some products such as hoop poles are sold by
the hundred or thousand pieces; posts and poles are measured
by the linear foot, thousand board feet, or piece; shake and
shingle-bolt material either by the cord or by the thousand board
feet; mine timber by the piece, linear foot or board measure;
crossties by the piece or thousand board feet.
Cubic measure is occasionally used in some parts of the coun-
try for the measurement of high-priced vehicle woods, fancy
hardwoods, red cedar pencil stock, pulpwood and, in the South,
for export timbers.
The metric system was adopted in the Philippine Islands some
years ago, but it is not used in the United States.
BOARD MEASURE
Although board measure is designed primarily for the measure-
ment of sawed lumber it is also a common method for expressing
the volume of logs. When used for this purpose it does not show
the actual contents of the log but the estimated amount of
sawed lumber that sound, straight logs of specified lengths and
diameters will yield.
The board foot is a section 12 inches square and i inch in
thickness. Although it is based on a thickness of i inch, in prac-
tice it is applied to sawed material greater than i inch in thick-
ness, the contents being in proportion to their relation to the
unit. In most sections lumber is cut scant in thickness and
IC7
I08 LOGGING
width, a practice now recognized by the Courts. A large per-
centage of construction lumber is surfaced, and the basis of
measurement is the size of the rough board from which it is
manufactured. In many regions the required thickness of
I -inch lumber surfaced on one or two sides is ^| of an inch^
although in some sections it is f 3 or y| of an inch. The widths
vary with the character of the product and the width of
the board; for example, the size of a so-called 2-inch by 4-
inch scantling, surfaced on one side and one edge, which is
standard with manufacturers, is if inches by 3! inches, while a
2-inch by 12-inch plank, surfaced on one side and one edge, is
if inches by 11^ inches. One-inch flooring and like products
are usually surfaced to || of an inch in thickness, and 2j inches,
3j inches and si inches in width, exclusive of the tongue. The
buyer pays for the rough lumber from which the finished product
was made, namely, for a 3-inch, 4-inch or 6-inch rough board,
and the purchase of 1000 feet of such material secures a quantity
which covers 750, 812 and 916 square feet, respectively, if there
is no waste in la}dng.
The reasons which have led to the custom are the saving in
timber effected by the manufacturer, and the impossibility of
cutting all boards of exactly the same width and thickness.
The latter would be useless, even if possible, because of the
uneven shrinkage in seasoning of boards of a given size, and
lumber scant in thickness is fully as serviceable for the majority
of purposes as it would be if manufactured full thickness.
Lumber less than -jf of an inch in thickness and veneers are
usually sold surface measure. Lumber quotations made on the
basis of the thousand feet are often assumed to refer to board
feet, which they do not unless so specified.
LOG RULES ^
Contents of logs are chiefly calculated in board feet according
to some specified log rule. Many different rules are in use in the
1 For a detailed discussion of log rules see Bulletin 36, U. S. Forest Service,
The Woodsman's Handbook, by Henry Solon Graves and E. A. Ziegler; also
Forest Mensuration, by Henrj- Solon Graves. John Wiley and Sons, New York>
1906.
MEASUREMENT OF LOGS AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS 109
United States and there is a wide variance among them in the
contents shown for logs of a given size. Some rules are based on
mathematical formulas ; some on diagrams which show the num-
ber of boards that may be cut with an assumed allowance for
slabs and saw-kerf; others on actual tally at the tail of the
mill; while certain ones are a combination of two of the above
methods.
Many of the present rules were prepared years ago when
logging and milling methods were not as efficient and intensive
as they are to-day. There are only two rules, namely, the
International and the Champlain, which give results closely
approximating the sawing contents of logs and these are in
limited use. The discrepancy in any rule, however, is not of
great moment if its deficiencies are fully understood by all
the parties interested in the measurement of a certain lot of
logs.
International Rule} — This rule is designed for the measure-
ment of logs which are to be cut by a band saw.
The rule is based on the formula :
Bf = 0.22 D- — 0.71 D,
in which Bf represents the yield in board feet, D the top diam-
eter inside the bark, 0.22 D^ the contents in board feet of a 4-foot
section less a deduction for saw-kerf and shrinkage in seasoning
and 0.71 Z> the waste incident to square edging and to normal
crook.
The formula is based on the following principles :
(i) The saw-kerf is \ inch.
(2) The loss from shrinkage and unevenness in sawing is ^6
inch.
(3) The minimum board considered is not less than 3 inches
wide and contains at least two board feet.
(4) The taper of logs is \ inch for each 4 feet of length.
(5) The average crook in first-class logs is 1.5 inches and
does not exceed 4 inches in a 12-foot log.
^ A copy of this rule is given in the Appendix.
I lO LOGGING
The rule may be applied where saws are used which cut a kerf
greater or less than |-inch by adding or subtracting the per-
centages given in the following table:
For ^"j-inch kerf add i . 3 per cent.
For y'g-inch kerf subtract 5 . o per cent.
For |-inch kerf subtract 9 . 5 per cent.
For j'g-inch kerf subtract 13.6 per cent.
For f -inch kerf subtract 17.4 per cent.
For I'ij-inch kerf subtract 20. 8 per cent.
A test of this rule in a white pine mill in Canada showed an
overrun of 0.4 of one per cent on 403 logs which ranged in diam-
eter from 6 inches to 33 inches.
Scribner Rule} — This rule, which is the oldest now in use, was
constructed from diagrams showing the number and size of
boards that could be sawed from logs of specified diameters after
allowing for waste. The contents of these boards were then calcu-
lated for different lengths and the table built up from the results.
The common form of the rule now in use is called the Scribner
Decimal "C" rule. This diflfers from the original in that the
units are dropped and the values rounded to the nearest ten.
Thus ninety-seven board feet would be written ten, and ninety-
four board feet, nine. The original rule did not give values
below 12 inches but the table has been extended and now in-
cludes diameters from 6 to 120 inches.
There are in use among lumbermen three different extensions
of the rule below 12 inches, known as the Scribner Decimal "A,"
Scribner Decimal "B" and Scribner Decimal ''C."
The Scribner . Decimal ''C" rule has been adopted as the
standard for use in the National Forests and is the legal rule in
Minnesota, Idaho, Wisconsin and West Virginia.
It gives fair results for small logs cut by a circular saw but
is too low for logs over 28 inches in diameter. In sound logs
the mill scale overruns the Scribner Decimal "C" rule by from
10 to 20 per cent.
Doyle Rule} — This rule is used in many sections of the
country and, except in Texas, it is the common rule in the pine
^ A copy of this rule is given in the Appendix.
MEASUREMENT OF LOGS AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS III
forests of the South. It is the legal rule in Arkansas, Florida
and Louisiana.
The Doyle rule is based on the formula
(VTx^'
in which D equals the diameter in inches of the log at the small
end and L the length of the log in feet.^ A uniform allowance of
4 inches is made for slab. This is too great a deduction for
small logs and it is insufficient for large ones, consequently the
mill tally overruns the scale on small logs and barely holds out
on the large ones.
A rule-of-thumb method for determining the contents of logs by
the Doyle rule is to subtract 4 from the diameter and square the
remainder. The result is the volume in board feet of a 16-foot
log. Other lengths are in proportion. This short-cut method
often proves of value to the field man since the contents of logs
can readily be determined by mental calculation.
In southern yellow pine the mill cut overruns the log scale
by from 18 to 25 per cent.
Doyle-Scribner Rule. — This rule is used for scaling hardwoods
and occasionally for southern yellow pine. It is a combination
of the two preceding rules. The values for diameters up to and
including 27 inches are from the Doyle rule and those for 28
inches and over are from the Scribner rule. This combines the
lowest values of each rule, and is, therefore, not as accurate as
either alone.
The Maine or Holland Ruler — This has been the principal
rule in Maine for many years and is not used elsewhere to any
extent. The values have been determined from diagrams show-
ing the number and size of i-inch boards, 6 inches and over in
width, that can be sawed from a given log.
Sound spruce and pine logs of good quality, from 12 to 18 feet
1 In some cases the published rule gives results varying nearly 3 board feet from
those determined by the use of the formula. The discrepancies do not appear to
bear any relation to a definite method and are undoubtedly due to errors which
have crept in since the rule was made.
* A copy of this rule is given in the Appendix.
112 LOGGING
in length, when cut by a circular saw which removes a |^-inch
kerf, will yield approximately the amount of inch-lumber shown
by the rule.^
It is regarded as a satisfactory rule for short logs.
Tlie Herring or Beaumont Rule. — This is the rule in common
use in Texas. The tables are based on the measurement of logs
sawed at the mill. The original rule appHed to logs from 12
to 42 inches in diameter and from 10 to 60 feet in length. An
extension of the rule down to 6 inches was made a few years ago
and the combination is known as the Devant-Herring rule.
This gives higher values than the Doyle rule for logs 15 inches
and under in diameter, but gives much lower values for larger
logs. It gives results closer to the actual sawing contents of
small logs in the shortleaf-pine belt of Texas than does the Doyle
rule, since the average logs are less than 15 inches in diameter.
The Nineteen-inch Standard Rule? — This rule is based on
volume measure, the unit being a log 13 feet long and 19 inches
in diameter inside the bark at the small end. This is called a
"standard" or "market." The formula for determining the
volume is
19- 13
in which V equals the volume, D the diameter inside the bark at
the small end and L the length in feet.
Standards are not convertible into board feet by any common
factor since the smaller the log, the greater the number of
standards required to equal 1000 board feet. A converting
factor of 200 feet per standard is often used, but it gives inaccu-
rate results since it requires from 4 to 14 standards to yield
1000 board feet, depending on the diameter and length of the
sticks.
The ratio between cords and standards is fairly constant for
logs of equal length. In the Adirondacks 2.9 standards are
considered equal to a cord.
^ See Manual for Xorthern Woodsmen, by .\ustin Gary, p. 135. Harvard
University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, igog.
2 A copy of this rule is given in the Appendix.
MEASUREMENT OF LOGS AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS 113
This rule is used in Northern New York and is regarded favor-
ably for the measurement of pulpwood.
The New Hampshire or Blodgett Rule} — This rule is based on
a cubic foot having an arbitrary value equal to i .4 English cubic
feet. The unit is a log section 16 inches in diameter and i foot
in length. The fonnula for determining the contents of a log
of a given diameter and length is
in which V is the volume in cubic feet, D the diameter in inches
and L the length in feet.
It is more satisfactory for pulpwood measurement than for
board feet because small logs are overvalued and large logs under-
valued. When converting the results into board measure, 115
cubic feet are assumed to be equal to 1000 board feet when the
diameter is taken at the middle of the log, and 106 cubic feet
when the diameter is taken at the small end. It is impossible,
however, to convert a volume measure into board feet by means
of a constant factor because of the wide variation in the relation
between volume and board feet when logs of different diameters
and lengths are considered.-
The above rule is commonly used for spruce in Maine, New
Hampshire and Vermont.
Gobel Cube Rule. — This is sometimes called the Big Sandy
rule, and is largely used for scahng logs along the Ohio River and
tributaries near the Big Sandy River.
The unit is a log section 18 inches in diameter and i foot long,
which is assumed to be the smallest that will cube 1 2 inches.
The formula is
^ A copy of this rule is given in the Appendix.
' For a detailed discussion of this subject see The Log Scale in Theory and
Practice, by H. D. Tiemann, Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters,
Vol. v., Xo. I, pp. 18-58; and The Standardizing of Log ^Measures, by E. A.
Ziegler, Proc. Soc. of Am. For., Vol. IV, Xo. 2, pp. 172-184.
114 LOGGING
in which V is the volume in cubes, D the diameter in inches and
L the length in feet. One cube is assumed to be equal to 12
board feet.
CUBIC MEASURE
The chief use of the cubic measure is for the determination of
the contents of logs which, with the exception of the bark, are
used in their entirety, such as for pulp wood, excelsior wood and
rotary-cut veneer stock.
The methods most commonly used are as follows :
Method of Cubing Logs by the Measurement of the Length and
Middle Diameter. — The volume of a given log is determined by
the formula
V = AL,
in which V is the volume in cubic feet, A the area in square feet
of the middle cross section and L the length in feet.
This method is simple and it is easy to secure the measurements
provided the middle of the log can be reached.
Method of Cubing Logs by the Measurement of the Length and
Both Ends. — This requires one more measurement than the
former and hence is not so rapid. It is adapted for use where the
middle diameter cannot be secured.
The formula for determining the volume is
2
in which V equals the volume in cubic feet, B and b the area in
square feet of the large and small ends, respectively, and L the
length in feet.
Cord Measure. — The standard cord contains 128 cubic feet of
stacked wood, or a pile 4 feet wide, 4 feet high and 8 feet long.
In some parts of the country, especially in the Middle West, fire-
wood is often sold by the "rick," which is a stack 4 feet high, 8
feet long and usually 12 or 16 inches wide. A stack of the
same height and length and 24 inches wide is sometimes called
a " single cord."
Although a standard cord contains 128 cubic feet of stacked
wood, the soHd cubic contents are extremely variable, depending
MEASUREMENT OF LOGS AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS 115
on the length, diameter, form, species and degree of drjTiess of
the sticks.^
(i) Length of Sticks. — Since sticks are never entirely smooth
or straight there are always spaces between them when they
are piled. The amount of air space increases in proportion to
the length of the sticks. Thus, assuming a 4-foot stick as stand-
ard, i-foot sticks show an increase in solid volume of 8.3 per
cent, while 6-foot sticks show a decrease of 5.5 per cent.
INTERDEPENDENCE OF THE STICK LENGTH AND THE VOL-
UME OF SOLID WOOD PER 128 CUBIC FEET OF SPACE 1
Straight sticks.
Crooked sticks.
Knotty sticks.
Length of
■
stick, feet.
Volume,
DifTerence,
Volume,
Difference,
Volume,
Difference,
cubic feet.
per cent.
cubic feet.
per cent.
cubic feet.
per cent.
I
99.81
+ 8.3
93-47
-t-14-l
89.60
+ 20.7
2
97.28
+5-5
89.60
+ 9-4
84.48
+ 13-8
3
94-72
-1-2.8
85.76
+4-7
79-36
+ 6.9
4
92. 16
0.0
81.92
0.0
74-24
0.0
S
89.60
-2.8
78.08
-4-7
69.12
-6.Q
6
87.04
~5-5
74-24
-9-4
64.00
-13-8
1 Muller, Udo: Lehrbuch der Holzmesskunde, Leipzig, igo2.
(2) Diameter oj Sticks. — The smaller the diameter of the
sticks, the greater the number of pieces per cord and likewise the
more air space; therefore, the solid cubic contents are less.
SOLID CUBIC FEET PER STANDARD CORD FOR STICKS OF
DIFFERENT DIAMETERS 1
Diameter of
sticks, inches.
Number of sticks
per cord.
Hardwoods.
Softwoods.
Mixed hardwood
and softwood.
6.80
6.00
4-75
3-50
94
126
205
378
102.40
94-72
88.32
79-36
102.40
98.56
97.28
90.88
102.40
96.00
Q2.l6
84.48
• Baur, Franz Adolf Gregor: Untersuchungen iiber den festgehalt und das gewicht des schicht-
holzes und der rinde; ausgefuhrt vor dem Vereine deutscher forstliche Versuchsanstatten, .Augsburg,
^ For a detailed discussion see Factors Influencing the Volume of Wood in the
Cord, by Raphael Zon, Forestn- Quarterly, Vol. I, pp. 126-133. The tables on
pages 115 and 116 are taken from this article.
ii6
LOGGING
(3) Split Wood. — Split sticks cannot be stacked as closely
as round ones, therefore, the solid contents of a cord of the
former is less than that of the latter. European practice shows
that the soUd contents of a cord decreases as the sticks, which
are spHt, increase in length and decrease in diameter. Thus a
stack increases in size 6 per cent when sticks from 3.5 to 7 inches
in diameter and 21 inches long are split into two pieces; sticks of
the same length and a diameter greater than 7 inches show an in-
crease of 4 per cent; 14-inch sticks from 3.5 to 7 inches in diam-
eter show a gain of 5 per cent; and 14-inch sticks of a greater
diameter than 7 inches show a gain of 2.5 per cent.
(4) Form of Sticks. — Clear boles yield more solid wood per
given space than tops and branches because the straighter and
smoother the sticks the fewer air spaces there are between them.
SOLID CUBIC FEET PER STANDARD CORD FOR STICKS OF
DIFFERENT SIZES 1
Class.
Number of
sticks per cord.
Hardwood.
Softwood.
MLxed hard-
wood and
softwood.
T ^ ( Smooth
La^^M Knotty
Qrv,oii 3 Smooth
^"^^"1 Knotty
104
lOI
162
15s
97.28
85.76
92.16
83.20
96.00
90.88
92.16
87.04
96.00
88.32
92.16
84.48
• Baur, F. A. G.: loc. cit.
(5) Degree of Dryness. — Since green wood shrinks appreci-
ably in volume as it becomes air-dry, the contents of a standard
cord of green wood becomes less as seasoning progresses. As a
rule, the shrinkage in volume in air-dried wood is from 9 to 14
per cent in hardwoods, and from 9 to 10 per cent in softwoods.
Other factors influencing the solid contents are the methods
of piling and fixing the stack, and the methods of measurement
used. Practice has shown that stacks in excess of 4.5 feet in
height are less carefully piled because of the greater physical
effort required to place the wood in the pile. Further, stacks
held by one stick on each end contain more soHd contents than
where the pile is held in place by two or more sticks, since in
MEASUREMENT OF LOGS AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS 117
the latter case there is less opportunity for crooked sticks to
project beyond the edge of the stack. Likewise, the longer the
stack the greater the solid contents.
Another factor is the closeness with which the Hmbs are cut
from the sticks, for the rougher the sticks the more air space
present.
Stacks are usually somewhat wider at the top than at the base,
due to the spread of the supporting sticks. The best practice
is to measure the stacks midway between the top and bottom.
Tables showing the volume of solid wood per standard cord
for sticks of given lengths and diameters, and also the volume
of solid wood in stacks 4 feet high, 8 feet long, and for sticks
of given lengths and diameters are given on page 521 in the
Appendix.
Cord measure is used chiefly for the measurement of firewood,
pulpwood, excelsior wood, stave bolts and like material. In
the spruce region of the Northeast pulpwood is often bought
in the log by cord measure, without stacking. The contents in
cords are determined by calipering the average diameter of the
log, determining the length and then reading from a table the
number of cubic feet in the stick. The sum of the contents of all
logs divided by 128 gives the number of cords. The table on
page 522 in the Appendix gives the same results for unpiled logs
that would be secured if the wood were piled and measured.
SCALING
The measurement of logs to determine their contents is termed
scaling, and men performing the work are called scalers. The
scaler's chief tool is a flat or square hickory stick from 3 to 5 feet
long which is used to measure diameters. One edge is laid off
in inches, and at corresponding points on the two sides and the
other edge are shown the contents in board feet of logs of various
lengths.
The stick is usually shod with metal on the lower end to
enable the scaler to place the rule accurately. The heads are of
a variety of patterns; some square, some "T" shaped, and others
in the form of a hook from 6 to 12 inches in length. The latter
Il8 LOGGING
is serviceable in scaling sniped and rafted logs. Some scale sticks
for measuring logs -with the bark on have a metal tip only, on the
end. When the log has bark on it allowance must be made for
the thickness of the latter.
For measuring long logs by the Xew Hampshire rule a caliper
scale stick is used, which is often adjusted so that the scaler need
not make allowance for the thickness of the bark.
Scalers are provided "VAith a scale stick; a crayon for marking
logs; and a notebook, scale sheets, or a paddle on which are
recorded either the contents of each log by lengths, or the length
and diameter of each log. In the latter case the volume is cal-
culated in the office.
Scaling practice varies in the different regions according to
the log rule used and the purpose for which the measurement is
made. In the northern forests the scaling is often done at the
skidway or at the landing on the stream before the logs are placed
on the roll way.
For skidway scaling a crew of two men is commonly employed.
A third man is assigned to the party in case the logs are to be
stamped \\'ith a log brand. The usual practice is for one man
to scale the logs at the small end inside the bark, and the other
to record the results. Logs as scaled are marked with a piece
of black or blue crayon. WTien necessary the owner's brand
is stamped several times on both ends of the log. The number
of the skidway and the number of pieces scaled are sometimes
marked on a blazed tree nearby; thus, -^^^.
In the South scaling is done by one man either at the stump,
on the skidways or on the log cars. The usual purpose of the
scale in this region is to furnish a basis of payment for contract
work and not for the purchase or sale of logs. The latter are
marked only with a crayon anless they are to be floated to the
mill along with timber of other loggers.
On the Pacific Coast logs may be scaled either on the car, or
in the raft when the logs are to be floated to the mifl.
The number of logs a scaler can measure daily is exceedingly
variable, due to the dift'erent conditions under which the work is
done. Under favorable conditions, however, he should measure
MEASUREMENT OF LOGS AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS II9
from 800 to 1000 logs. A scaler and helper in Ontario will
average 3000 pieces at a cost of 2^ cents per thousand feet.^
The cost of scaling ranges from 2 to 10 cents per thousand
feet. Scalers receive from $50 to $100 per month when working
on a salary. Contract scaKng on large timber ranges from 3 to
5 cents per thousand feet.
It is customary on Government timber sales for a head
scaler to check-scale or re-scale a portion of the timber meas-
ured by the regular scalers to detect possible errors. The
number of pieces re-measured varies from 5 to 25 per cent of
the total. The cost of the check-scale is 5 cents or more per
thousand feet.
The various steps in the measurement of logs are as follows :
(i) Determination of the length. The scaler may do this by
laying off the length with his scale stick, or by measuring with
a tape, a pole or a wheel attached to the caliper arm. The
wheel has 10 spokes, each armed with a spike, and the spokes are
of such length that the distance between each spike is exactly 6
inches. One weighted spoke affords a starting point for measure-
ment. The length of the log is determined from the number of
revolutions of the wheel.
Many scalers estimate lengths and measure only occasional
logs as a check on short lengths. WTien log-makers are paid on
the basis of the amount of timber cut, this practice often leads to
careless w^ork, because a shght shortage in log lengths cannot be
detected readily.
(2) Determination of the diameter. Logs of standard length-
are measured inside the bark at the top or small end. It has
become a practice in some regions, particularly in the South, to
scale inside the bark on one edge and outside on the other.
Custom has made this the recognized method among operators,
but it is not standard. The inconsistency of this practice can
readily be seen when it is considered that the thickness of bark
is not a constant factor even on logs from the same tree and a
1 See The Canada Lumberman and Woodworker, Toronto. Ontario, Canada,
September, 191 1, p. 67.
^ Standard lengths range from 10 to 24 feet inclusive, in multiples of 2 feet.
I20 LOGGING
practical log rule based on the measurement of any portion of
the bark could not be devised.
WTien the log is not round the average diameter is taken.
Diameters are usually rounded to even inches, one-half inch or
less being talHed as the next even inch below, and over one-half
inch, as the next even inch above. Some scalers, however,
throw all fractional inches in the next lower inch class.
\'eneer logs, especially when they are to be rotary cut, are
often measured on the smallest diameter. Extra long logs such
as are frequently cut in some parts of the spruce region, the
yellow pine region of the South, and the fir region of the Pacific
Coast may be scaled as single lengths, with or without allowance
for the taper of the log.
On the National Forests, except in Alaska and the territory
west of the Cascade IMoun tains, logs over i6 feet long are scaled
as two, and preferably in lengths not less than 12 feet.^ This is
accomplished either by determining the actual diameter of the
logs at the intermediate points or by making allowance for the
taper. In private practice where no allowance is made for taper,
the log rules give results far below the sawing contents of the
log.
(3) Determination of the quafity or grade of the log. When
scaling is done primarily to serve as the basis for the payment
of saw or skidding crews it is customary to measure defective
logs as though they were sound and to give full credit to the
workmen since it requires as much time and labor to fell and
handle them as it does sound logs, and discrimination acts as an
inducement for workmen to leave defective timber in the woods.
Where the object of scahng is to furnish a basis for the sale
of timber it is customary to reduce the scale of defective logs
1 On the National Forests in Alaska and west of the summit of the Cascade
]Moun tains in Washington and Oregon, logs up to and including 32 feet long are
scaled as one log; lengths from 34 to 64 feet, inclusive, are scaled as two logs, the
division being made as near the center as possible, for example, a 34-foot log would
be scaled as an 18-foot butt log and a 16-foot top log. On logs of average taper the
diameter of the larger log may be determined by taking the mean of the top and
butt diameters of the whole length by calipering, or by estimating with the aid of
a taper table. Greater lengths than 64 feet are scaled as three logs, making the
division as nearly equal as possible and in even feet.
MEASUREMENT OF LOGS AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS 1 21
and to credit only the amount which the log will actually saw out
in merchantable lumber, according to the standard agreed upon
between buyer and seller.
The "merchantable timber" may be the basis on which the
scaling is done, in which case there is always a chance for argu-
ment between buyer and seller. It is better policy to specify
that the buyer must take all timber that will produce at least a
specified grade of lumber.
Scahng defective logs requires expert judgment and long ex-
perience as there are a great variety of defects possible and the
determination of the extent to which they influence the sawing
contents of the log must be left entirely to the scaler. Rules for
discounting unsound logs are of value chiefly as a check on the
scaler's judgment. The latter becomes expert through study-
ing defective logs as they are sawed in a mill and actually
determining the amount of sawed material that logs with given
defects will yield. This varies with the species, character of
lumber manufactured, tjpe of saw used, efficiency of the
sawyer and the degree of utihzation in the manufacturing
plant.
Among the defects common to timber are center or heart rot,
shake, pin-dote, cat-face, rotten sap, deep checks and seams,
crook, crotches, stained sap and rafting pinholes.
Uniform Center or Circular Rot. — There are a number of
methods in use for discounting this form of defect.
(i) Assume the scahng diameter of the log to be the diameter
minus the diameter of the rotten core. Thus, if a 12-foot log
were 20 inches in diameter and the rotten core had a diameter
of 6 inches, the scahng diameter would be 14 inches. The loss,
using the International rule, would be 125 board feet, or 53 per
cent of the total.
(2) Scale the log as sound, compute the contents of the rotten
core and subtract this from the gross scale. The loss in the log
above cited would be 15 feet, or 7.3 per cent.
(3) Add 3 inches to the diameter of the defect, square the sum
and deduct this from the full scale of the log. This method
shows a loss of 81 feet, or 34 per cent.
122 LOGGING
(4)^ " For uniform defect of 3 inches or less in diameter, deduct
10 feet b.m. in logs up to 16 feet in length.
"For defect 4 to 6 inches in diameter add 3 inches to actual
diameter of rot, and deduct from the full scale of the log an
amount equal to the contents of a log of the resultant diameter.
"For defect 7 to 12 inches in diameter add 4 inches to diam-
eter of rot and deduct an amount equal to the contents of a log
of the resultant diameter from full scale of log.
"In short logs showing defect less than 4 inches in diameter
at only one end and not in the knots deduct one-half the amount
called for by the rule for the full length of the log.
"In measuring the diameter of this t^pe of rot the scaler
should measure it at the end of the log showing the greatest area
of defect, since the saw cuts in straight parallel lines."
Using the International scale the above method gives a loss on
a 12-foot log, 20 inches in diameter and with a 6-inch rotten core,
of 40 feet, or 17 per cent.
The wide variation in the results secured by these different
methods shows the weakness of the average systems employed.
In "Forest Mensuration," - certain defects are classified, and
tables showing the discounts are given. A cull table for center
rot taken from this volume follows. It is based on a study made
by Tiemann which established the fact, theoretically, that "in
logs of the same length, the loss due to holes of any specified size
is practically uniform regardless of the size of the log."
Although the table is designed to be "applicable to all center
defects, such as holes, cup shake, rot, etc., which are 4 inches
or more from the bark," it is less accurate for holes than for
rot.
In actual sawing practice there is a difference in the loss of
timber in two logs of a given size, one of which has a rotten core
of a certain diameter and the other a hole of the same diameter.
When sawing a hollow log enough timber must be left around all
sides to hold against the carriage dogs and prevent the saw from
^ Method used by the U. S. Forest Service.
^ Forest Mensuration, by Henry Solon Graves. John Wiley and Sons, New
York, 1906, p. 71.
MEASUREMENT OF LOGS AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS 1 23
breaking down the shell into the cavity. On the other hand,
a log with a defective center can be sawed close to the rotten
core because the unsound wood prevents the shell from col-
lapsing. The loss on a 6-inch rotten center may be a stick
squaring 6 inches by 6 inches in size, while a hole of the same
diameter would cause a loss of a square at least 8 inches by
8 inches. With this modification the table can be used with
greater safety than many of the rule-of-thumb methods now
employed.
In applying the table, the longest diameter of the defect is
measured, the loss is then determined from the cull table and sub-
tracted from the gross scale. The defect should be measured at
the large end if it runs through the log or appears at the large end
only; otherwise, measure at the small end. The table assumes
the loss of entire boards even if the defect is visible only at one
end.
CULL TABLE
Loss THROUGH DEFECTS OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS NEAR THE CENTERS OF LOGS
(Good for defects more than 4 inches from the bark.)
Length of logs in feet.
Diameter
of defect.
10
12
13
14
16
18
20
inches.
Board feet.
2
5
6
6.5
7
8
9
10
3
9
II
12
13
15
16.5
18
4
14
17
18
20
23
25-5
28
5
20
24
26
28
32
36
40
6
27-S
33
36
38.5
44
49-5
55
7
36
43
47
5°
57
65
72
8
45
54
58.5
63
72
81
90
9
56
67
74
78
89
100
112
10
67
81
87
93
107
120
133
II
80
96
104
112
128
144
160
12
94
113
122
132
151
169.5
188
13
109
131
142
153
175
196.5
218
14
125
150
162.5
175
200
225
250
• 15
142
171
184
218
226
255
283
Circular Shake. — This may be discounted in the same manner
as circular rot, by determining the diameter of the defect outside
of the shake "rings." When there is a soHd core inside of the
124 LOGGIXG
shake rings the contents are subtracted from the gross scale of
the defect and the remainder deducted from the full scale of the
log.
Pin-dote. — This defect appears on the ends of logs as small
rotten spots, often distributed in a circular form. The rot
frequently starts from punk knots and near the latter the log
may be very defective. When the visible area affected is 4
inches or more in diameter the usual method is to discount the
log contents in the same manner as for circular rot.
Stump or Butt Rot. — This defect seldom extends more than a
few feet into the log and usually tapers to a point. Where the
wood is only sHghtly rotten and the aft'ected area is small, the
defect seldom extends more than a few inches and often no allow-
ance is made for it.
When the defect occupies the center of the log and extends
nearly to the bark, the usual practice is to reduce the scaling
length. When a few boards can be cut from the outer shell of
th€ affected portion their board-foot contents are added to the
merchantable scale.
Butt rot near one edge of the log may be largely removed by
the slab, and the scaler must exercise judgment in determining
the deduction to be made.
Cat-face. — This may be due to an injury to the butt by fire,
or to wounds made by split shingle makers who cut into trees to
determine the straightness of the grain of the wood. The com-
mon practice is to divide the log into sections, then determine
what proportion of a particular section will be lost in manufac-
ture and deduct this amount.
OtJier Side Defects. — Lightning scars seldom extend far into
the wood and are usually removed with the slab. Unless deep
they are disregarded.
Punk knots which are an indication of red heart or rot often
render a log practically worthless, especially when rot appears
at either end. As a rule, pine timber that is badly affected has
exudations of resin at numerous points along the bole and often
bears fruiting bodies of a fungus. The scaler's judgment is the
only guide in discounting logs of this character.
MEASUREMENT OF LOGS AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS 125
Rotten Sap. — The sound heartwood only is measured on
logs having this defect.
Stained Sap. — Sound stained sap wood of most species is
merchantable if it has not been attacked by wood-boring insects.
The full scale is given for sound material, but when the sap-
wood is worm-eaten the heartwood only is measured.
Checks and Seams. — These are found chiefly on dead timber
from which the bark has fallen. They usually extend through the
sap, and on timber that has been dead for some years they may
extend well toward the center of the tree. Where the checks are
small the scaling diameter is taken inside the sap, while on logs
with wide checks a further deduction must be made in accord-
ance with the scaler's judgment.
A single deep check can usually be sawed out by the loss of one
or two boards and their contents only should be deducted.
Spiral Checks. — Where deep spiral checks occur the scahng
diameter is that of the largest circle that can be secured without
the inclusion of the checks.
Crook or Sweep. — The percentage of loss from this defect is
greater on small logs than on large ones. The contents of the
log may be determined by finding where the saws will square the
log sufficiently to enable boards of the narrowest merchantable
width to be cut. If the sweep is pronounced, a few short boards
may be secured from the slab, in which case their estimated
board-foot contents are added to the scale of the log.
Crotches. — Logs with crotches near the end are reduced in
length sufficiently to eliminate the crotch. The scaling diam-
eter is taken just below the enlargement caused by the fork.
Rafting Pinholes. — These are usually about 2 inches in diam-
eter and located near the ends of the log. They can generally
be removed by wasting the ends, or portions of a few boards,
provided the log is sawed in an economical manner. The only
guide to discounting defects of this character is the scaler's
judgment.
LOG GRADES
Logs that are brought into large markets for sale are classified
into grades that have been adopted by associations. Printed
126 LOGGING
rules for the guidance of inspectors have been issued. The
specifications contained in them furnish the basis on which
market quotations are made. Grades are enforced by scalers
employed by the associations and a fee is charged for their
services.
Among the chief hardwood log-grading rules are those of the
Lumbermen's Association, Nashville, Tennessee, and among the
chief softwood rules are those of the Columbia River Log ScaKng
and Grading Bureau, Portland, Oregon, copies of which are given
on pages 525 to 528, inclusive, in the Appendix.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER VIII
Gary, Austin: A ^Manual ior Northern Woodsmen. Published bj^ Harvard
University, Cambridge, Mass., 1901.
Clark, Judson F. : The Measurement of Saw Logs. Forestry Quarterly,
Vol. IV, Xo. 2, 1906, pp. 79-93.
Forest Service: U. S. Department of .Agriculture. The National Forest
Manual, Washington, D. C, 191 1.
Graves, Henry Solon: Forest ^Mensuration. John Wiley and Sons, New York
1906.
: The Woodsman's Handbook (revised and enlarged).
Bulletin 36, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C, 1910.
Tiemanx, H. D.: The Log Scale in Theory and Practice. Proceedings of the
Society of American Foresters, Vol. V, No. i, Washington, D. C, 1910,
pp. 18-58.
WoOLSEY Jr., T. W.: Scaling Government Timber. Forestry Quarterly, Vol.
V, No. 2, 1907.
ZiEGLER, E. A.: The Standardizing of Log Measures. Proc. of the Soc. of
Am. For., Vol. IV, No. 2, 1909, pp. 172-184.
ZoN, Raphael: Factors Influencing the Volume of Wood in a Cord. Forestry
Quarterly, Vol. i, pp. 126-133.
PART III
LAND TRANSPORT
CHAPTER IX
ANIMAL DRAFT POWER
For many years animals constituted the only draft power
used in logging operations in the United States. They are still
used extensively in the spruce region of the Northeast, the Appa-
lachians, the yellow pine forests of the South, the Lake States,
the Inland Empire and portions of Cahfornia. In all of these
regions machinery has replaced them for some purposes, yet
animal logging is still the chief method.
Animals are now seldom employed for moving heavy timber,
for swamp logging or for work on very rough ground and very
steep slopes. Power-driven machinery has supplanted them in
the redwood belt of Cahfornia, the fir forests of the Northwest,
the c^'press swamps of the South and some of the rough moun-
tainous portions of the United States.
They still remain the favorite form of draft where the timber
is of medium size, where the stand per acre is less than 5000
feet and where topography and bottom afford good footing.
The chief uses for animals in logging are to transport timber
and other forest products from the stump to a collecting point
along a logging railroad, a landing on some stream or to a saw-
mill. In addition they often supply the power for decking logs
on skidways, and loading logs on sleds, wagons and logging cars.
Even where machinery is used for skidding logs, animals may be
required to return the cable to the woods and to haul wood and
water for the engines.
Oxen. — Oxen were the only animals owned by many of the
pioneer lumbermen and, even after horses were available, loggers
operating in remote sections found the ox more desirable because
it could hve on coarser feed, draw heavier loads, stand rougher
treatment and required an inexpensive harness which could be
made in camp.
129
130
LOGGING
Conditions have changed within recent years, and the higher
cost of labor and supplies has led the logger to use either horses
or mules because they are more active than oxen. Oxen
are now most extensively employed in the hardwood regions of
the Appalachians and in the yellow pine region of the South,
where they are frequently supplemented by horses or mules.
The following conditions are those under which oxen ma\- be
used to the best advantage :
(i) On swampy ground, because they do not mire as badly
as the smaller-footed horse or mule.
(2) For skidding on brushy ground, as they require little
swamping.
(3) On steep slopes, especialh- if the ground is rough and the
underbrush abundant, because they are not excitable in difficult
situations.
One advantage is that eight or ten animals can be handled
by one teamster, while only four or five horses or mules can be
worked by one man. Oxen stand heavy puUing day after day
better than other draft animals and also require a minimum of
attention because only one feed per day is necessary if the
animals are turned out to graze at night.
They are slow on short hauls but they can be loaded more
heavily and thus partially offset the greater speed of horses and
mules, although they are not as serviceable as mules on hot,
dusty roads because they suffer from continual exposure to the
direct rays of the sun, and, on very warm days, may be easily
killed by over-exertion due to careless driving. They can be
used in cold regions without danger. Under average conditions
an ox will travel fourteen miles in eight hours.
Oxen are usually harnessed with a yoke ; seldom with a collar
and harness. The driver controls them by the voice and by a
heavy rawhide whip. They are worked in teams of from three
to five yoke. In a team of five yoke the front pair are called
''leaders," the next two pairs are "in the swing," the fourth
pair are "point cattle" and the rear pair are called "wheelers."
The leaders are the best trained, while the wheelers are the
heaviest yoke of the team.
ANIMAL DRAFT POWER 13I
The training begins when the animals reach the age of one
and one-half or two years, but they do not attain their best
development until their fifth or sixth year. They are service-
able, under average conditions, until they reach the age of ten or
twelve years.
In the South oxen for logging purposes weigh about 1200
pounds and are generally purchased from farmers near the logging
operation. They cost from $60 to $100 per yoke for average
animals and because of insufficient food are usually light weight
when purchased and require a year or more of proper feeding
before they attain their average efficiency. Heavy or well-
trained animals may bring as high as «S2oo per yoke.
Horses. — Horses are commonly used in the Appalachians,
Lake States, Inland Empire and the Northeast. They stand
cold weather well, are active and are moderate eaters. They
are best adapted for logging on smooth or rolling ground, and
with good care will remain efficient for from four to seven years.
In northern Alabama, when well cared for, they are as satis-
factory as mules, but farther south the climate is not favorable
for them. When improperly housed and fed they are less effi-
cient under similar conditions than mules or oxen.
Horses weighing from 1200 to 1400 pounds are best adapted
for handling small logs and for rough work in the Northeast.
For heavy logging and two-sled hauling horses weighing from 1500
to 1800 pounds are preferred. Animals of this weight are not
adapted to rough ground or steep slopes because they are not
active enough. They are also too heavy for use on frozen slopes
with a grade exceeding 25 degrees.
Horses for logging purposes are generally purchased from
dealers who make a specialty of draft animals. Good animals
for logging work are worth about $250 each.
Mules. — Mules are used more extensively in the South than
in any other section.
The chief points of advantage are:
(i) They will stand more heat than an ox or a horse and are,
therefore, better adapted for long or hard hauls during summer
months or in a hot cHmate.
132 LOGGING
(2) They will stand rougher treatment and perform more
labor on poor feed than a horse.
(3) They are less excitable than horses and. therefore, are
well suited for use in operations where colored teamsters are
employed.
(4) They are more agile than horses on rough ground.
(5) They eat less than horses and seldom overfeed. Mules
have not proved a success in the North where low temperatures
prevail during the winter.
Under favorable conditions there is little difference in the
amount of work performed daily by mules and horses.
]Mules for logging purposes range in weight from iioo pounds
for leaders to 1300 pounds for wheelers. They cost from S225 to
S250 each in the St. Louis, Kansas City and other mule markets.
Southern loggers usually purchase their mules at one of the two
markets mentioned or from farmers in Kansas and nearby states.
The best mules are raised in ^Missouri, Kentucky and Kansas.
EATIONS
The rations given to animals vary greatly because of the differ-
ence in the character of feed available and the diversified opin-
ions of feeders.
A draft animal at hard work requires a certain amount of
concentrated food containing protein, carbohydrates and fats,
which is fed in the fonn of grains, such as corn, oats and barley;
mill products, including corn meal, ground corn and oats, and
similar combinations; and the by-products, cottonseed meal,
cottonseed hulls and linseed meal. In addition, animals require
rough material, such as hay of various kinds, corn fodder, corn
husks and like feeds to give bulk to the ration. If no rough
fodder or hay is given, an animal will consume more concentrated
food than necessary to keep it in working condition. On the
other hand, hea\dly-worked animals cannot subsist on roughage
alone because the digestible nutrients are so small that they
cannot consume a sufficient bulk to secure the proper amount of
nourishment.
In preparing rations for animals, horses and mules require
ANIMAL DRAFT POWER
133
dififerent treatment from oxen because they have smaller
stomachs. As they have less power to digest foods, they must
be fed less at one time and at more frequent intervals.
The degree of digestibility is dependent on two factors;
namely, the length of time the food remains in the digestive
tract,^ and on the fineness of the division of the food. Mastica-
tion is less in horses and mules than in oxen because the former
must do all the chewing before the food is swallowed while
ruminants, such as the ox, regurgitate their food and chew it
at will.
German students of animal nutrition, among them Wolff and
Lehmann, have prepared tables showing the amount of chemical
constituents required for animals of a standard weight of 1000
pounds, performing a given kind of labor. Other weights are in
proportion. These tables are known as feeding standards and
are an approximate statement of the amounts of the different
nutrients required by animals. They serve as a
feeders.
guide for
WOLFF-LEHMANN FEEDING STANDARDS 1
[Showing amounts of nutrients per looo pounds live weight for one day's feeding.
Animal.
Oxen: 2
At rest in stall. . .
At light work. . . .
At medium work.
At heavy work. . .
Horses:
At light work.. . .
At medium work.
At heavy work. . .
Total
Digestible nutrients. |
dry
matter.
Protein.
Carbohy-
drates.
Fat.
Pounds.
Pounds.
Pounds.'
Pounds.
18
0.7
8.0
0.1
22
1-4
10.0
0.3
25
2.0
II-5
0-5
28
2.8
13.0
0.8
20
1-5
9-5
0.4
24
2.0
II. 0
0.6
26
2-5
^3-3
0.8
Fuel ' value.
Calories.'
16,600
22,500
27,200
32,755
22,150
26,700
32,750
1 From The Feeding of Farm Animals, by E. W. .-Mien. Farmers' Bulletin No. 22, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, 1901, p. 12.
- For an unworked ox of 1000 pounds weight the standard calls for 0.78 pound of digestible pro-
tein, 8 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and o.i pound of digestible fat, which would furnish
16,600 calories of heat and energy. When heavily worked the same o.\ would require, according to
the standard, food with four times as much protein and of nearly twice the fuel value.
3 The value of food to produce heat for the body and energy for work is measured in calories and
is calculated from the nutrients digested. The fuel value of one pound of digestible fat is estimated
to be 4230 calories and of one pound of digestible protein or of carbohydrates about i860 calories.
The total value of a feeding stuff is found by using these factors, the equivalents for the common
foods being given on pages 134 and 135.
* A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water about 4
degrees.
^ Cattle are said to retain their food from three to eight days, while horses retain
it four days or less.
134
LOGGING
If overfeeding is detected by loggers a new ration may be
calculated, or the present ration modified with the aid of this
feeding standard and the following table which shows the amount
of digestible food ingredients in the common feeding stuffs.
DRY MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE FOOD INGREDIENTS IN
loo POUNDS OF FEEDING STUFFS i
Feeding stuff.
Green fodder:
Corn fodder (average of all va-
rieties)
Kafir-corn fodder
Rye fodder
Oat fodder
Redtop, in bloom
Orchard grass, in bloom
Meadow fescue, in bloom
Timothy, at different stages.. . .
Kentucky blue grass
Hungarian grass
Red clover, at different stages. .
Crimson clover
Alfalfa, at different stages
Cowpea
Soy bean
Rape
Corn silage (recent analyses)
Com fodder, field cured
Com stover, field cured
Hay from —
Barley
Oats
Orchard grass
Redtop
Timothy (all analyses)
Kentucky blue grass
Hungarian grass
Meadow fescue
Mixed grasses
Mixed grasses and clover
Red clover
Alsike clover
White clover
Crimson clover
Alfalfa
Cowpea
Soy bean
Wheat straw
Rye straw
Oat straw
Soy-bean straw
Roots and tubers:
Mangel- wurzels
Turnips
Total
dry
matter.
Protein.
Pounds
I .10
0.87
2.05
2.44
2.06
1. 91
1.49
2.01
2.66
1 .92
3-07
2.16
3-89
1.68
2.79
2.16
1 .21
2-34
5-II
4.07
4.78
4.82
2.89
4.76
4-5°
4.20
4.22
6.16
7-38
8. IS
II .46
10.49
10.58
10.79
10.78
0-37
0.63
1 .20
2.30
1.03
0.81
Carbohy-
drates.
Pounds.
12.08
13-80
14. II
17.99
21 .24
15-91
16.78
21 . 22
17.78
15-63
14.82
9-31
II .20
8.08
11.82
8.6s
14-56
32.34
33 -16
35-94
33-35
41.99
46.83
43 72
37-46
51-67
43-34
43.26
42.71
38.15
41.70
41.82
38.13
37-33
38.40
38.72
36.30
40.58
38.64
39-98
565
6.46
Fat.
Pounds.
0.37
0.43
0.44
0.97
0.58
0.58
0.42
0.64
0.69
0.36
0.69
0.44
0.41
0.25
0.63
0.32
0.88
I-I5
0.57
1-55
1.67
1 .40
0.95
1-43
1-99
1-34
1-73
1-33
1 .46
1. 81
1.36
1.48
1 .29
1.38
i-Si
1-54
0.40
0.38
0.76
1.03
Fuel value.
Calories.
26,076
29,101
31.914
42,093
45-785
35.593
35.755
45.909
40,930
34.162
36,187
23,191
29,798
19,209
29.833
21,457
33.046
69,358
67,766
82,894
76,649
92,900
100,078
92,729
86,927
110,131
95.725
93.925
97.059
92.324
98,460
105,346
95.877
94.936
97.865
98,569
69,894
78,254
77.310
82,987
12,889
13,986
' From The Feeding of Farm Animals, by E. W. Allen. Fanners' Bulletin No. 22, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1901, p. 8.
ANIMAL DRAFT POWER
135
DRY MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE FOOD INGREDIENTS IN
100 POUNDS OF FEEDING STUFFS 1 {Continued)
Feeding stuff.
Roots and Tubers:
Ruta-bagas
Carrots
Grains and other seeds:
Corn (average of dent and flint)
Kafir corn
Barley
Oats
Rye
Wheat (all varieties)
Cottonseed (whole)
Mill products:
Com meal
Com-and-cob meal
Barley meal
Ground corn and oats, equal
parts
Pea meal
Waste products:
Rye bran
Wheat bran, all analyses
Wheat middlings
Wheat shorts
Buckwheat bran
Buckwheat middlings
Cottonseed feed
Cottonseed meal
Cottonseed hulls
Linseed meal (old process) ....
Linseed meal (new process ) . . . .
Total
dry
matter.
Protein.
Carbohy-
drates.
Fat.
Pounds.
Pounds.
Pounds.
Pounds.
II. 4
0.88
7-74
0. II
II. 4
0.81
7.83
0.22
81. 1
7-14
66. 12
4-97
«7.5
5-78
53.58
1-33
89.1
8.69
64.83
1 .60
89.0
9-25
48.34
4.18
88.4
9.12
69-73
1.36
89. 5
10.23
69.21
1.68
89.7
11.08
32, --^i
18.44
85.0
6.26
65.26
3-50
84.9
4.76
60.06
2-94
88.1
7.36
62.88
1 .96
88.1
7.01
61 .20
3-87
895
16.77
51-78
0.65
88.2
11.47
52.40
1-79
88.5
12.01
41-23
2.87
84.0
12.79
53-15
3-40
88.2
12.22
49.98
3-83
88.5
19.29
31-65
456
88.2
22.34
36.14
6.21
92.0
9-65
38.57
3-37
91.8
37-OI
16.52
12.58
88.9
I OS
32.21
1.89
90.8
28.76
32.81
7.06
90. 1
30-59
38.72
2 .90
Fuel value.
Calories .
16,497
16,999
157.237
116,022
143.499
124.757
152,400
154.848
160,047
147.797
132,972
138,918
143,202
130,246
126,352
111,138
136,996
131.855
113,992
134.979
103,911
152.653
69,839
144,313
141. 155
' From The Feeding of Farm Animals, by E. W. Allen. Farmers' Bulletin No. 22, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 1901, p. 8.
In calculating rations according to the preceding tables, it is
only essential that the quantities of carbohydrates and fats
correspond approximately, because they both serve practically
the same purpose and an excess of one may be offset by a de-
ficiency of the other.
The test of the fitness of a ration for a draft animal is the
ability of the animal to maintain an even weight. Generally, if
a healthy animal loses weight, it is an indication of insufficient
food, while an increase denotes an excessive ration. This does
not refer to minor changes in weight from day to day but to
changes observed over a period of several weeks.
136
LOGGING
RATIONS ACTUALLY FED TO HORSES AND DIGESTIBLE
NUTRIENTS AND ENERGY IN RATIONS CALCU-
LATED TO A BASIS OF 1000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT!
"o
Rations
actually fed.
Nutrients in ra-
tion per 1000
pounds live
weight.
Digestible nu-
trients in rations
per 1000 pounds
live weight.
0
3
Kind of animals.
a
%
0
1«
Oi3
u
0
3
0
a
£
a.
rt
fe
2
0)
(U
•d
0
u
0
'■5^2
.Sg
a
Army horses.^
United States:
Lbs
1050 1
1125]
I02S 1
Lbs
Oats, 12
Hay, 14
Oats, 12
Hay, 14
Oats, 9
Hay, 14....
Lbs
f 2.00
|l.84
2.38
Lbs
0.90
0.84
0.78
0.77
Lbs
12.82
11.96
11.39
11.99
Lbs
4.95
4.62
Lbs
1.2s
T t6
Lbs
0.57
0.53
0.48
0.42
Lbs
8.00
7.48
6.88
8.09
Lbs
1.97
1.84
1.94
1.63
Calo-
ries.
23,300
21,750
4.80|l.oo
4.o8|l.49
20,250
Farm horses.
General average for
moderate work.
22,710
Hay, 15.2...
Com, lo.s. .
Corn silage,
10.5
Farm mules, Virginia
Station.
1
[ 1.70
0.82
12.00
4.00 0.72
0.42
8.22
1.75
21.655
1.64
0.78
11-54 •?.7<i o.6q
0.39
7.95
1.60
20,675
ing above.
1500 1
Oats, 7-5 •■ ■
Hay, 20. . . .
Oats. 15
Hay, 12. . . .
Horses u'ilh severe work.
Truck and draft horses:
Chicago, 111., daily ra-
tion.
South Omaha, Neb.. . .
}l.38
jl.65
0.58
0.70
8.99
9.57
4.34
3.27
0.64
1.04
0.34
0.45
S.ll
6.23
1.79
1.27
15,450
17,800
Average of 5. includ-
1.80
0.76
10.49
3-49
1. 12
0.49
6.94
1.35
19.560
. . .
Feeding standards and
average rations.
.American experiments.
Horses with light work:
1.58
0.99
1.06
1.57
1.49
0.69
1.12
0.22
0.32
0 49
5-27
5.06
7 11
1. 18
1.24
1.72
1.62
1.63
1.60
1.35
15.895
14,890
Horses with moderate
work:
20,860
22,760
0.42
0.39
0.49
8.09
7-95
6.94
22,710
20,67s
work: Farm mules.
19,560
Truck and draft
horses.
1 From Principles of Horse Feeding, by C. F. Langworthy. Farmers' Bulletin No. 170, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, 1903, p. 31.
2 The standard salt allowance is 2 ounces weekly.
ANIMAL DRAFT POWER
137
RATIONS FED BY LOGGERS
Horses:
Heavy work at a
sawmill, Canada.
Maine logging op-
eration.
Mules:
Louisiana logging
operation.
Missouri logging
operation.
Oxen:
Mississippi logging
operation.
Alabama logging
operation.
Louisiana logging
operation.
15 pounds hay.
10 pounds ground grain.
I pound bran.
8 pounds oats.
io| pounds com.
12 pounds oats.
40 pounds hay.
135 pounds corn-alfalfa.
55 pounds chops.
16 pounds hay.
8 pounds oats.
7 pounds com.
40 pounds hay.
20 pounds cottonseed hulls.
5 pounds cottonseed meal.
10 pounds hay.
21 pounds com.
Com fodder (unlimited).
26 pounds com.
14 pounds hay.
Barley )
Oats 5
I to I.
Animals weighing
about 1600 pounds
each.
Animals weighing
about 1300 pounds
each.
Animals weighing
from 1200 to 1300
pounds each.
WEIGHT OF FEEDING STUFFS PER QUART 1
Feeding stuff.
Pound.
Ounces.
Corn, cracked
Corn meal
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
12
8
6
12
14
10
8
2
13
10
II
3'
2
8
Com-and-cob meal
Oats, whole
Oats, ground
Wheat, whole
Wheat bran .
Wheat bran, coarse
Wheat middlings
Wheat middlings, coar,se
Rye bran
Gluten meal
Gluten feed
Linseed meal
Cottonseed meal
■ From The Feeding of Farm Animals, by E. W. Allen,
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1901, p. 19,
Farmers' Bulletin No. 22, U. S. De-
138 LOGGING
A record of the rations fed to horses and mules performing
various classes of labor has been collected and published. A
portion of a table is given on page 136 followed on page 137 by
some rations fed in the lumber regions. The weight of animals
to which the latter refers is not known definitely and a close
comparison cannot be made. They are of interest, however,
because they show variation from the feeds given in the table.
Some of these materials, especially by-products Hke wheat
bran, var\' considerably in weight, and the above figures can-
not be regarded as strictly accurate for all cases. Weighing
is. of course, always the safer way where it is desired to
feed definite amounts.
WATER REQUIREMENTS
The amount of water required by horses depends largely
upon the season of the year, the temperature of the air, the
character of the feed, the individual peculiarities of the horse
and the amount and character of the work performed. The
water requirements increase with a rise in temperature and with
the amount of work performed since both factors induce per-
spiration.
Less water is required when concentrated or green succulent
foods are fed than when the bulk of the ration consists of coarse
fodder or of dry food. A horse under average conditions will
drink from fifty to sixty-five pounds of water daily, while under
heavy work or during warm weather from 85 to no pounds wiU
be consumed. Mules in Oklahoma, during hot summer weather,
consumed 113 pounds of water daily with a minimum of 107
pounds and a maximum of 175.^ The ration was composed of
grain and hay.
Experiments conducted in the British Army showed that
horses, when allowed to drink at will, consumed about one-fourth
of their daily allowance in the morning, about three-eighths at
noon and the remainder at night.
^ See Principles of Horse Feeding, by C. F. Langworthy. Farmers' Bulletin,
No. 170, U. S. Department of Agricultm-e.
ANIMAL DR.\FT POWER 1 39
European experiments demonstrated that the time of drinking
has no appreciable effect on the digestibility of the food. Animals
may be watered either before or after feeding with equally good
results, but it is desirable to always observe the same practice
since some animals do not feed well if watered after feeding, when
they are accustomed to being watered before.
CHAPTER X
SKIDWAYS AND STORAGE SITES
The transport of timber from the stump to the manufacturing
plant generally comprises two distinct operations.^
(i) Assembling the logs at depots, called skidways or yards,,
usually near the point of felHng. This is termed skidding or
yarding, and may be accomplished by manual labor; by animal
power with or without the use of vehicles; by power-driven
machinery; or by log slides and chutes.
(2) The transport of the assembled logs to a stream or to the
manufacturing plant. This is termed hauKng and is most fre-
quently done with some form of cart, wagon, sled, railroad or
log slide.
Skidding and hauling may be conducted simultaneously, as
in the South and West where rail transport is used, or at dif-
ferent seasons, as in the spruce forests of New England where
hauling is done on sleds.
LOG STORAGE IN THE FOREST
The character and location of the storage points depend on
the manner in which the timber is to be hauled and on the
topography.
For Sled Haul. — Where sleds are used the skidway consists
of a skeleton log structure built crib-fashion, and so placed that
the logs can be stored parallel with the road. That portion of
the structure nearest the road should be at least as high, and
when practicable, higher than the sled bunks, so that a portion
of the load can be put on by hand. The rear end is placed on a
level with the ground in order that logs can be rolled on the
bed skids without difficulty.
' On small operations the logs may be taken direct from the stump to the
mill.
140
SKIDWAYS AND STORAGE SITES 141
Logs are decked on level ground to a height of from 20 to 30
feet. They are elevated by means of the crosshaul, operated by
animals. A "decking" crew is made up of four or five men
and one team. The equipment comprises four cant hooks, two
pole skids 6 inches in diameter and from 8 to 10 feet long, and a
f-inch crosshaul chain about 40 feet long with a grab hook on
one end.
The logs are brought to the rear of the skidway and are then
rolled by a "tailer-in" to the base of the logs already decked.
The end of the chain carrying the hook is then thrown o\-er and
under the center of the log to be decked, after which the hook is
fastened to one of the decked logs just below the spot where it is
desired to place the new log. The free end of the chain passes
over the skidway and, if the pull is to be straight away, is at-
tached to a hook on the double-tree.
After adjusting the chain, skids are placed against the decked
logs, and the team is started. Two "ground loaders" guide the
log straight up the skids using cant hooks for this purpose.
Logs with taper, crooks, large knots and similar defects seldom
roll straight and the ground loaders must be on their guard con-
tinually. A "top-loader" who stands on top of the pile of logs
directs the log to its place, frees the grab hook if necessary and
also directs the teamster. The direction of pull may be modified
to meet special conditions. For instance, instead of attaching
the chain directly to the double-tree it may be passed through
a block fastened to a tree directly behind the skidway. This
enables the team to pull at right angles to the direction in which
the log is traveling and is of especial advantage when brush,
boggy ground or other obstacles prevent a straight-away pull.
The chain may also be passed through a block and brought
forward over the skidway so that the horses pull on the same side
on which the logs are being decked. This may be desirable
where there is a bad bottom or some other physical hindrance
to the usual method of operating.
Large skidways can be filled most economically when they
are built in tiers on slopes. The logs are then delivered
above the skidway and rolled to the levels below. Large side-
142
LOGGING
hill skidways may contain from 100,000 to 500,000 feet log
scale.
During hauling time skidways may be places of transfer from
skidding to hauling equipment in which event they are known as
"hot skidways."
When sleds are used for hauling, the skidways are located at
convenient points along the logging roads which lead down to a
landing or second large storage yard on a stream down which the
Fig. 26. — Skidwa}^ along a Two-sled Road. Montana.
logs are to be floated. The sites for skidways should be selected
by the logging foreman at the time the sled roads are laid out,
and the routes of the latter should be chosen with reference to
good skidway sites as well as desirable grades. Provision should
be made for a down-hill haul from the stump to the storage point.
Skidding cannot be carried on profitably for long distances on.
level ground, consequently a flat country requires the greatest
number of skidways. Large skidways are preferable because
there is less snow to be shoveled off at loading time, and the
SKIDWAYS AND STORAGE SITES 143
construction and maintenance of a minimum mileage of road is
required.
Landings. — Temporary storage grounds, called "landings,"
are made along the banks of driveable streams or on the edge of
lakes where logs are to be transported by water. Their form
depends on the character of the stream down which the logs are
to be driven. Where the stream is small and the storage area
limited, the logs are hand-decked from 15 to 30 feet high, in the
stream bed, parallel to the banks. When a large volume of flood
water is available in the spring, the logs may be dumped promis-
cuously into the stream and the floods relied upon to carry
them out.
Logs placed on frozen streams or lakes are scattered over a
wide area in order to save the labor of decking and to prevent
the weight of the logs from breaking through the ice.
For Wagon Haul. — Skidways are seldom made for wagon
hauling. The logs are bunched in the forest in a place accessible
to the wagons and are loaded with the crosshaul and taken to a
skidway along the railroad or direct to the mill.
For Railroad Haul. — These vary in character depending on
whether the logs are loaded on cars by animals or by power.
Skidway sites for animal loading with the crosshaul should
not be lower than the track because it is too difficult to handle
the logs. A straight "get-away" of 40 feet should be provided
on the side of the track opposite the skidway where the loading
team can travel back and forth.
An area several hundred feet in length along the track may be
cleared for storage especially if the stand of timber is heavy and
hauling precedes rail transport by some weeks in which case
the skidway can then be used but once. Where hauling is
simultaneous with rail transport, skidways are filled repeatedly
and less storage space is required.
With animal loading it is essential that the logs be carefully
piled parallel to the railroad track. The skidways consist of
two continuous rows of poles placed about 8 feet apart and ex-
tending at right angles to the track for a maximum distance of
100 feet. The logs are brought to the rear of the skidv/ay and
144 LOGGING
rolled toward the track, leaving a clearance of approximately
lo feet between the first log and the rail. Logs are seldom
decked more than four high as it is more economical to place
new skids than to spend time in decking.
Where power loaders are used, skidways are often merely areas
along the track from which the brush and debris have been
removed so that the teams can deliver the logs. In a fiat region
where plenty of space is available the logs are seldom decked.
It is unnecessary to have logs arranged parallel to the track or
placed on skids since the loader can pick them up readily at
distances not to exceed loo feet. If there are steep slopes near
the railroad, logs are often hauled to the edge and rolled dowa
by gravity, forming a ''rough and tumble" skidway. This pro-
vides a large storage area and reduces labor in handling the logs.
Since power loaders can readily pick up logs several feet below
the level of the track the logger can locate his railroad without
reference to loading sites. See Fig. 78.
CHAPTER XI
HAND LOGGING AND ANIIVIAL SNAKING
HAND LOGGING
The movement of logs by hand from the stump to a point
where they can be reached by animals is commonly practiced
in the mountainous region of the Appalachians and is known as
"brutting." Trails are cleared down the steep slopes and the
logs are rolled to a stream bed or flat where hand labor is replaced
by animal labor. Hewed crossties are frequently made in rough
mountain regions and dragged down the slopes to streams or to
accessible points.
Hand logging is also practiced in the white cedar (Chamcccy'
parts thyoides) forests of the Coastal Plain region. The trees
are felled, cut into sections and carried by men or carted on
wheelbarrows over plank runs to a light tram road where they
are loaded on small cars and pushed to a point available to a
stream tram road.
Some operators in the cypress swamps of this region cut swaths,
called "creeks," at half-mile intervals through the forests locat-
ing them with reference to the current when the swamp is flooded.
These are made during a dry season and are cut from 50 to 150
feet wide according to the number of logs that are to be floated
down them. The trees which have been girdled for about a year
are felled and cut into logs during a dry period and left on the
ground until flood waters cover the swamp to a depth of 5 or 6
feet. Negro laborers are then taken to the swamp in boats and
they pole the logs, sometimes for a quarter of a mile, to the
nearest "creek" down which they are floated to the rafting
ground, where they are made into rafts, and then towed to a
mill.
Hand logging was common on the Pacific Coast for many
years before the industry reached its present development. The
14s
146 LOGGING
timber was felled on slopes close to tidewater or some driveable
stream, the logs were rolled into the water, made into rafts and
sold to large loggers or manufacturers who transported them to
market. Often the stumpage was not the property of the logger
who cut it and the timber was sold at a price slightly above the
cost of the labor expended upon it. The increase in the value of
stumpage and the greater care given to timber properties by the
owners has largely eliminated this class of loggers in the United
States. In British Columbia hand logging is still practiced to a
hmited extent by virtue of "hand logger's" permits issued by
the Provincial Government.
The introduction of modern machinery for logging has given
a wider meaning to the term hand logging on the Coast, and it
is now applied to loggers who operate on a small scale with
animals.
SNAKING WITH ANIMALS
The transportation of logs with animals without the use of
vehicles is practiced in many parts of the country either to take
logs from the stump to a skidway or to transport them for longer
distances to a stream, railroad, chute or other form of long-
distance transport.
The first is usually a short-distance method and the logs are
taken out over crude trails from which only such obstructions
have been removed as are necessary to make snaking feasible.
The usual distance for snaking on level or gentle slopes does not
exceed 500 feet. However, logs may be brought from the stump
to skidways 1000 or 1200 feet distant, but such long distances
are not considered advisable except where there is a downgrade,
or where there is not enough timber to warrant the construction
of a road nearer to it.
Animals for skidding may be used singly or in teams when
horses or mules are employed, or in single, double or triple yokes
when oxen are used. The number of animals is governed by
the weight of the timber handled, the character of bottom and
the grade of the skidding trail.
In the spruce region of the Northeast, two animals are used
HAND LOGGING AND ANIMAL SNAKING
147
1
Fig. 27. — Skidding Trails leading down to a Skidway along the
Logging Railroad. West Virginia.
Fig. 28. — Oxen skidding a Yellow Pine Log containing 1 200 Feet.
Arkansas.
148
LOGGING
to yard timber, because logs are cut in long lengths, while in
northern New York single animals are usually employed because
the timber is cut in short lengths. The usual practice in other
legions is to use two or more animals.
Single animals have been tried for skidding small second-
growth loblolly pine in the Coastal Plain Region, but because
of the heaviness of the wood and the enervating climate they
have not proved satisfactory.
Fig. 29. — A Skipper Road on a W lsI \ irginia Operation.
The second method is common in the rough sections of the
Appalachians and Pennsylvania, where horses are used for
snaking logs for distances not exceeding one mile. The logs are
brought down trails which are sometimes so steep that the ani-
mals must be returned to the woods by a more circuitous route.
A trail is made 6 or 8 feet wide, cleared of obstructions and
banked on the outer edge with skids to prevent logs from leaving
them'. Swamps are corduroyed, streams bridged and rough
places covered with ''skippers." These are timbers 8 or 10
inches in diameter and 12 feet long which are either placed zig-
HAND LOGGING AND ANIMAL SNAKING 149
zag across the road, the angle between skippers being about
60 degrees, or the poles are placed directly across the trail at in-
tervals of from 4 to 6 feet. Logs often drag over zigzag skippers
more smoothly than over those placed directly across the trail.
Rough chutes are sometimes built in the stream beds to cover
rocks and other obstructions, when it is necessary to divert the
trail from the slopes to the stream bed. Short-radius curves
are undesirable because they decrease the draft power of the
animals, and make it hard to keep a long turn of logs in the trail.
Logs are brought down in "turns" made up of several logs
fastened in single file. On level stretches a two-pole chute is
sometimes built to facihtate dragging (page 233). They are
occasionally used on gentle slopes if the bottom is rough.
On the Pacific Coast long-distance snaking has been replaced
largely by road engines and railroads, because animal draft is
more expensive than either of the above systems for distances
of three-fourths of a mile or more. Animals are still used to
a limited extent however, for short hauls on small operations.
Skid roads built for animal snaking in the Northwest are care-
fully located, stumps are removed, cuts and fills made and the
roadbed leveled so that a desirable grade is secured. Skids 10
feet long and from 10 to 14 inches in diameter are laid across the
completed grade at lo-foot intervals, and are partly buried in
the ground so that the horses can step over them easily. Wet
places in the roadbed are covered with puncheons spht from
western red cedar, to provide a footing for animals. A " saddle"
is adzed out of the center of each skid and in this the log rides.
On curves the skids are longer and are either elevated on the
inner side of the curve to prevent the tow of logs from crowding
into the bank or the skids are laid flat and the elevation is se-
cured by placing small sloping skids on the inside of the curve.
The latter is regarded as the better method since the small skids
can be more easily placed and, if necessary, the angle of inclina-
tion can be readily changed. On level stretches the saddles are
greased to reduce friction. Logs are fastened together by means
of "grabs" into long tows, each one averaging 1000 board feet
per horse. A team on a road of this character formerly consisted
150 LOGGING
of from eight to ten yoke of oxen but they have been replaced
by horses, from four to fourteen constituting one team.
Drumming. — A primitive form of skidding, called "drum-
ming," is employed by small operators in the mountain regions
of the Appalachians where the slopes are too steep for animal
skidding, too rough for cheap road construction, and where the
size of the operation does not warrant the use of power-driven
machiner}-.
The equipment consists of a large drum, hung on a vertical
axis, placed close to the edge of the plateau. Fastened to the
barrel of the drum is a long horizontal lever arm to which a pair
of mules are hitched. A short stout pole is fastened by one end
to this lever arm and the other end drags on the ground in the
rear, and acts as a brake when the drum is in operation. A
manila cable from 1500 to 2000 feet long is attached to the drum
underneath the draft pole and is carried down the slope by
men and fastened to a log with grab hooks. The mules attached
to the draft pole are started and, as the drum revolves, the
cable is wound around it and the log gradually dragged up the
slope. Logs are drawn over the escarpment, or other rough
places in a chute made of logs. Trails are not cut out for the
logs.
SNAKING EQUIPMENT
The first essential is a strong leather harness for horses and
mules, and suitable yokes for cattle. Horses and mules when
used in teams are coupled together in pairs and require a set of
double-trees or a spreader and two single-trees for each team.
For single animals a spreader only is required. When several
teams are hitched one in front of the other a ^-inch draft chain
is required to which each double-tree is fastened. The draft
chains for oxen are attached to rings on the yokes. Various
devices, such as chokers, tongs and grabs, are used to attach the
log to the draft power.
Chokers. — A choker is a chain from 12 to 16 feet long, made
from f-inch iron with or without a choker-hook on one end.
When a choker-hook is used, the end carrying it is thrown
HAND LOGGING AND ANIMAL SNAKING
151
around the forward part of a log to be skidded and the chain
caught in the throat of the hook (Fig. 30, a.)
When the chain has no attachments, one end is thrown around
the forward end of the log, looped around that part of the chain
which is to be attached to the draft, after which it is wrapped
several times around the chain encircling the log. When power
GRAB HOOK
b SKIDDING TONGS
f DOUBLE COUPLER
Fig. 30. — Various Forms of Equipment used in Snaking Logs, a, a chain choker.
b, skidding tongs, c, a common form of skidding grab, d, a patent skidding
grab, e, the " J " hook used to attach the tow chain to a turn of logs, /and g
two forms of double grabs or couplers, h, a single grab or coupler.
is applied to the draft end of the chain the noose around the
log tightens and prevents it from slipping. The choker may be
used for single logs, or several small logs may be bound together
in a cluster with one chain. It is very serviceable because it is
readily adjustable to any size of log.
The draft end of the chain may be attached by a hook to
a ring in the yoke of the rear pair of oxen, or to a ring on the
152
LOGGING
double-tree or spreader when other animals are used. If the
chain is not supplied with a hook, the ring on the double-tree to
which the chain is attached is made with a narrow throat in which
a link of the chain is caught and held securely. The ring is often
replaced by a grab hook in which the chain is gripped. The
two latter forms of attachment are preferred because the chain
may be lengthened or shortened at will.
Fig. 31. — A Turn of L.ii^s al ihe Dump ainnu a Skipper Knutl.
fastened together with " single coupler" grabs. West \'irginia.
lie logs are
Tongs. — Tongs which may replace chokers for handling
medium-sized logs are made from round or octagon steel i^ or
i^ inches in diameter, and have a spread of from 24 to 36 inches
(Fig. 30, b). A |-inch chain link is attached to each short arm
of the tongs and these links are connected by a 5-inch steel ring.
In operation this ring is caught in a hook attached to the double-
tree but occasionally a hook is attached to the ring on the skidding
tongs, in which case the hook on the double-tree is replaced with
a mm..
HAND LOGGING AND ANIMAL SNAKING 153
Grabs. — These are of several fortns. The common skidding
grab (Fig. 30, c) consists of two hooks each one of which is at-
tached to a short |-inch chain which in turn is fastened to a ring
made of the same size material. The hooks are driven into the
wood on either side of the forward end of the log and grip it in a
manner similar to a pair of tongs. The grab ring is attached
directly to the spreader by means of a hook. The Morris patent
skidding grab (Fig. 30, d) consists of a chain having a large ring at
each end. The grab hooks are attached to the chain by narrow-
throated hnks which may be set at any point in order to make the
distance between grabs conform to the size of the log. The draft
GRAB SKIPPER
GRAB MAUL
Fig. 32. — A Type of Grab Skipper and a Grab ilaul used on a West
Virginia Logging Operation.
power is attached to another narrow-throated ring which can be
placed midway between the grabs and thus equalize the power.
On steep slopes where logs are apt to run, a form of grab shown
in Fig. 30, g is used. The spreader ring is attached to the "J"
hook and when logs gain too great headway and threaten to run
into the horses, the latter may be turned to one side, whereupon
the tow of logs is uncoupled automatically. Grabs are also used
to couple logs together in turns for transportation down skidding
roads. There are several different patterns, including two forms
of double grabs or couplers (Fig. 30,/ and g) used for the forward
Jogs where the strain is greatest, and a single grab or coupler
(Fig. 30, //), for the rear logs.
A metal-banded wooden maul or a sledge hammer is used for
driving grabs and a pointed sledge hammer, called a ''skipper,"
for removing them.
154 LOGGING
CREWS AND DAILY OUTPUT
In the northern forests a crew usually consists of two or three
teamsters, one or more swampers and one skidway man. One
or more animals are assigned to each crew.
In the open pine forests of the South where there is a minimum
of trail-building, one or more teamsters may work alone, doing
their own swamping and skidway work. The usual practice,
however, is to have swampers prepare the logs.
The daily amount of work, measured in thousand feet, log
scale, performed by a team depends on the size of logs, the length
of haul, the character of bottom and the grade. The size of log
is an important factor because small logs show a low log scale in
comparison to their weight and while several may be skidded at
one time, their total scale may be considerably below that of a
single log which can be handled as readily and in less time.
The number of logs skidded in a given time is not proportional
to the distance. Animals when once in motion will consume
less time traveling the second one hundred feet than they did the
first, provided the log is not so heavy as to require stops every few
feet. The time saved on the shorter haul may be lost very easily
at the skidway or at the stump. A soft or rough bottom or one
covered with large roots, stumps and other obstructions is pro-
hibitive of speed and cuts down the daily output. Steep grades
increase the number of logs that can be handled at one time.
When skidding with two animals, either horses or mules, and
handhng timber that averages from six to nine logs per thousand
feet, log scale, a day's work, ten hours, ranges between 10,000
and 15,000 feet for distances up to 500 feet. A daily average of
10,000 feet during a month is considered good. For 750 feet
the average ranges between 8000 and 12,000 feet, log scale and
for 1000 feet, from 3000 to 4500 feet, log scale. A two-yoke
team of oxen will average approximately the same number of
feet per day as a good pair of mules or horses.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE ON CHAPTER XI
Margolin, Louis: The Hand Loggers of British Columbia. Forestry Quar-
terly, Vol. IX , No. 4, pp. 562-567.
CHAPTER XII
SLEDS AND SLED-HAULING
THE GO-DEVIL
Snaking is frequently supplemented by the use of sleds.
A sled known as a go-devil, travois or crotch is employed in
the eastern part of the United States during the summer and
early fall and sometimes in the winter.
Fig. $^. — A Go-devil loaded with Hardwood Logs. Michigan.
The go-devil is a product of the camp blacksmith shop. It is
a rough sled having two unshod hardwood runners, which are
preferably of yellow birch, selected from timbers having a natural
crook. The usual t}^e of runner is from 6 to 7I feet long, 6
155
156 LOGGING
inches wide, and from 3 to 5 inches thick. A 6-inch by 6-inch by
4-foot or 5-foot bunk is fastened to each runner by a bolt. The
bunk is placed from 2 to 2^ feet from the rear end of the runners.
A ring is attached to the center of this bunk and the logs are
bound on the latter by a chain passing around the logs and bunk
and through the ring. The curved, forward ends of the runners
are connected by a roller which has a short chain at each end
that passes through a hole in the forward end of the runner and
is fastened several inches back on it. Since the go-devil has
no tongue it can be turned around in a small space. The draft
rigging consists of chains fastened to either side of the bunk or
to the runners. The chains are brought forward and joined
directly in front of the roller b}' a ring to which the hook on the
double-tree is attached.
Since go-devils are loosely constructed, there is consider-
able backward and forward play in the runners and if one of
them becomes obstructed the other moves ahead and starts it.
Go-devils are seldom used for distances less than 300 feet,
except under adverse snaking conditions. They may be used
for a quarter of a mile on snow but are not as economical as
larger sleds for this distance. Trails are required and these are
cut by the swampers as they prepare the logs for skidding.
THE LIZARD
A crude form of sled called a lizard is sometimes used in the
pine forests of the South when the ground becomes too soft for
wheels. They are not serviceable on very muddy ground because
the nose digs too deeply into the soil.
The lizard is made from the natural fork of an oak, hewed flat
on the upper and lower side, with an upward sweep on the
forward end so that it can slide over obstructions easily. About
two-thirds of the distance from the front end the two prongs are
spanned by a bunk bolted soHdly to them. The draft chain is
fastened to this bunk and also passes around the log and through
a hole in the upturned nose. Lizards are made in the camp
blacksmith shop.
SLEDS AND SLED-HAULING
157
YARDING SLEDS
It is often desirable to yard or skid logs for distances over a
quarter of a mile, especially when the amount of timber does
not warrant the construction of a two-sled road, or the haul from
the stump to the landing or to the railroad does not exceed if
miles and the grade is favorable.
Snaking and go-devils are replaced in such cases by yarding
sleds or drays in the Northeast and by a "jumbo dray" or a
"bob" in the Lake States and the Adirondacks.
Fig. 34. — A Yarding Sled used in the Northeast.
The yarding sled is made by the camp blacksmith and consists
of a pair of yellow birch or maple runners, 7 feet long, 3 inches
wide and shod with f-inch steel shoes. The forward ends are
curved upward. The runners are held together by a bunk 8
inches square and 4 or 5 feet long, placed about 3 feet from the
rear end of the sled. In order to facilitate handhng the sled the
bunk is made in two parts; namely, a lower stationary bar
fastened securely to the runners by pins, called "starts," and
braced by heavy iron straps or "raves," and an upper bar which
158 LOGGING
is temporarily removed when the sled is turned around in the
woods. The upper bunk has grooves cut on the ends or on the
sides, and these grooves fit around the starts, which are mortised
in the lower bunk and fastened to the runners.
Several logs with the forward ends supported on the bunk and
the rear ends dragging on the ground can be loaded on a yarding
sled.
ySled Bar
DOUBLE SCHOODIC SINGLE SCHOODIC'
WEAVERS BIND
Fig. 35. — Methods of fastening Logs to the Bunk of a Yarding Sled.
The equipment consists of two |-inch chains 18 or 20 feet long
which are used to fasten the logs to the bunk of the sled. Each
chain has a grab hook on one end and a bunk hook on the other.
The use of chains in binding logs is shown in Fig. 35. A third
chain is sometimes used to bind the rear end of the load.
Two horses are used for hauling yarding sleds, except on
long hauls or unfavorable grades, when four may be employed.
An average load is five large logs, or seven or eight small ones,
the total averaging from 700 to 1000 feet, log scale. Five thou-
sand feet is an average day's work for a team and sled on a haul
of ^-mile. The cost per thousand feet for teaming expense
under such conditions averages from 75 to 90 cents.
THE BOB
In the Lake States and in the Adirondacks where yarding
sleds are not used, a *'bob'' performs similar work. It consists
of the front runners of a "two-sled," equipped with chains for
SLEDS AND SLED-HAULING 1 59
binding on the logs. It is adapted for hauls under three-fourths
of a mile where the distance is too great for snaking.
From ten to sixteen logs may be hauled at one time on favor-
able grades.
THE "jumbo"
The jumbo, a modification of the go-devil, is used on a snow
haul in the Lake States, for distances not exceeding |-mile, where
the conditions do not warrant the use of heavy sleds.
It consists of twin-sleds, similar in construction to go-devils,
joined together by cross-chains, with a distance between bunks
of about 9 feet. The runners are 8 feet long and have a 6^-foot
to y-foot gauge. Two go-devils may be fastened together and
used instead of special sleds. The jumbo will carry from looo
to 1500 feet, log scale.
Roads must be cut out, stumps removed and swamps cordu-
royed, but the cost of road construction is less than for two-sleds.
THE TWO-SLED
The transportation of logs from the skidway to a landing on
streams, to a railroad or to a mill is often effected by means of
a heavy sled called the "two-sled," "twin-sled" or "wagon-
sled." The gauge of sleds and minor features of construction
vary with the weight of the loads, length of logs that are to be
hauled and also with the ideas of the individual foremen, the
essential features, however, being similar. Some prefer a wide
gauge sled since the horses do not walk in the runner tracks and
the latter can be kept free from manure.
A sled used on a Maine operation had runners 105 feet long,
4 inches broad, 7 inches high, which were shod with flat 4-inch
steel shoes. The gauge was 5I feet. The runners were braced
near the center by a transverse bar called a bunk, which was
fastened to them by a wrought-iron casting, called a "dexter"
or " sled knee." A rocker rested on the bunk of the forward sled.
This rocker could turn around a king-pin that passed through
it and the bunk. The forward runners were also strengthened
by a flat roller rounded on the ends and fitted in circular holes in
the sled noses. To this roller the sled tongue was mortised.
i6o
LOGGING
When two teams were used for hauling a sled, a false tongue was
slung on rings under the main pole, projecting ahead far enough
to accomodate the forward pair of horses. This pole enabled the
lead team to assist in steering the sled. The rear runners were
similar to the forward pair, \yiih the omission of the tongue and
rocker. Two-sleds are made from well-seasoned oak, maple or
birch. The w^oodwork on a sled lasts from three to four seasons
but the runner shoes must be renewed annually.
Photograph by E. B. Mason.
Fig. 36. — A Loaded Two-sled, shomng the Binding Chains and a Potter
Ion the left). New Hampshire.
The front and rear sleds are often joined by two ^-inch or
|-inch chains attached to the back side of the forward bunk,
directly over the runners, then crossed and attached to the noses
of the rear runners. The length of the chains is adjustable so
as to adapt the distance between the forward and rear bunks to
the length of logs being hauled. On rough roads, when light
sleds are used, and when logs of medium and fairly uniform length
are being hauled, the cross chains may be replaced by a "goose-
SLEDS AND SLED-HAULING l6l
neck," which is a V-shaped pair of thills. They have a hook on
the apex by which they are attached to a ring on the back side of
the forward bunk and the divergent ends of the goose-neck are
fastened to the roller ends of the rear sled. The length of the
goose-neck is from i6 to i8 feet, which gives a distance of 21 or
23 feet between the rear bunk and the forward rocker. When
the empty sled is ready to return from the landing to the skidway,
it is customary to unhook the goose-neck, turn it back on the
rear pair of runners and couple the sleds close together by means
of cross chains.
The cost of construction of a two-sled in a camp blacksmith
shop, including labor and materials is between $50 and $75.
Dealers in logging suppHes quote them at prices ranging from
$100 to $150.
SLED ROADS
Yarding Sled Roads. — Roads for yarding sleds are laid out
by the camp foreman. Several main roads diverge from the
skidways generally going up the slopes, and from these, branch
roads are built directly to the logs.
Main roads are built 5 or 6 feet wide, stumps are cut level with
the grade and all brush, fallen timber and boulders cleared away.
The road is roughly graded, holes and depressions are filled with
brush or dirt, streams are spanned with crib bridges, swamps are
corduroyed and cross-skids are frequently placed across the road
at intervals of from 10 to 20 feet to prevent the runners from
cutting up the road. Side-skids may also be placed along the
lower side of the road to prevent the sleds from leaving it. On
side slopes, the outer edge of the road may be built up by laying
skids parallel to the road and then placing short skids 2 or 3
feet apart across them. This crowds the sled towards the bank.
Main yarding roads are generally built by a special road crew.
The secondary roads are laid out and constructed by the swamp-
ers while preparing the logs for skidding. Easy grades are de-
sirable both for main and secondary roads, but are not absolutely
essential because the speed of loaded sleds can be checked on
steep pitches by a "snub-line " or a "bridle."
l62
LOGGING
The snub-line consists of a i|-inch or 2-inch manila rope, one
end of which is fastened securely to the load. The other end is
given two or three turns around a stump at the head of the grade
and gradually paid out as the sled descends, the speed being
controlled by means of a brake on the stump.
A bridle is a chain passed around a runner in front of the bunk.
It is put on and removed as circumstances demand. A clevis
attached under the forward part of a runner sometimes replaces
it. Bridles can only be used on smooth ground, otherwise the
Fig. 37.
Yarding-sled Trails leading down to a Skidway on a
Two-sled Road. ISIaine.
chains catch on roots and other obstructions and stop the sled.
Tail chains, which bind together the rear end of the load, also
act as impediments and assist in the control of the sleds. Aided
by any of these devices, teams with loaded sleds can go down
slopes, up which they cannot return with empty sleds. The
general scheme of roads is shown in Fig. 37.
The cost of constructing main yard roads ranges between $60
and $100 per mile.
Two-sled Roads. — The road system for an operation on which
the_ logs are to be transported on two-sleds, comprises a main
SLEDS AND SLED-HAULING
163
road over which all the traffic passes to the landing, and second-
ary roads which radiate from it to the skidways. The roads are
laid out by the camp foreman usually without the aid of survey-
ing instruments, although in recent years, progressive woodsmen
have adopted a hand level for the determination of grades.
The main road location is the more important because it is the
route over which fully loaded sleds pass. These roads often
follow the valley of some stream from the woods operation to
the landing, crossing and recrossing the watercourse as often as
Fig. 38. — A Yarding-sled Road built up on a Curve to prevent the
Sleds from leaving the Road. Maine.
necessary to maintain the desired grade. A minimum number of
bridges is desirable because they are expensive to construct and
to maintain. In order that logs can be hauled on a down-
grade from the secondary roads to the main road, the latter
should be located on the lower levels of the tract.
A main road of easy descending grades is preferred because
on grades in excess of 5 per cent, heavy loads gain too much
headway and it is necessary to place hay, straw, gravel, sand or
brush on the road to check the speed. It is more satisfactory
and often cheaper in the end to make cuts or to detour ascending
grades rather than to return by them.
1 64 LOGGIXG
Dead-level pulls should be avoided because more power is
required to move loads on such places than on gently descend-
ing grades. Sharp curves are especially dangerous on steep
pitches because the load cannot be held in check by the ani-
mals and the sled is apt to leave the road under the momentum
attained.
Turnouts are provided at the end of long, straight stretches
on low-grade roads, while on steep mountain roads a ''go-back"
road is built on which the empty sleds return.
Secondary roads are inferior in construction to the main ones
because they may be used for one season only, and a smaller
amount of timber is brought out over them. Fewer roads can
be used in a rough or rolling region than in a flat country because
the downgrade permits skidding for longer distances.
Two-sled roads should be built during the summer or early
fall before the ground freezes and snow falls. The days are
then long and the unfrozen earth can be handled to best advan-
tage. On new operations, road work follows camp construction,
while on other operations the roadmen come in a short time in
advance of the regular camp crew, or simultaneous with it.
It is often necessary, however, to construct a tote road, from
the base of supplies to the camp site, previous to the con-
struction of the camp. Roadmen are chosen from the most
inefficient workers in camp, because in such work little skill is
required.
The right-of-way having been blazed out by the camp fore-
man, the "road-monkeys," as the men are called, proceed to
fell a strip of timber from 20 to 30 feet wide along the proposed
route. The merchantable timber is cut into saw logs which
may be left at one side of the road, or skidded to the nearest
skidway site. Depressions are filled with rotten logs and sound
non-merchantable species. The latter are also used for corduroy,
bridge construction and skids. Large stumps are grubbed, sawed
level with the ground or blasted out; boulders are removed; and
cuts are made to reduce hea\y grades. Two-sled roads often
present a rough appearance before snow falls, because of the
uneven nature of the roadbed, but the first heavy snow fills the
SLEDS AND SLED-HAULING 165
depressions and smooths off the road making a solid bed over
which the sleds may pass.
Swamps containing live springs are a source of annoyance
when the road must pass over them, because they are the last
part of the road to freeze over in the fall and the first part to
thaw in the early spring, and should, therefore, be avoided when
practicable. When the road crosses low marshy grounds or
swamps, corduroy is used, which serves to give a broad bearing
Fig. 39. — A Two-sled Road, showing the Method of building up
the Grade on Side Slopes.
surface to the road and prevents the sled runners from sinking
into the mud. An average day's work for one man is to cut poles
for and build one rod of corduroy. The cost ranges between
60 cents and $2 per running rod.
When roads are built on side slopes, the upper side is cut down
and the lower side raised by laying long skids parallel to the
outer edge of the road and placing short transverse skids on
them. The space between the skids may be filled with brush,
or left vacant and snow allowed to fill the interstices. On roads
where the traffic is heavy the slope is either cut down enough
1 66 LOGGING
to make a solid roadway, or else an abutment of logs is built
up on the low side.
Streams and dry watercourses are bridged with structures
made from round timbers. Bridges are the first part of a sled
road to weaken. They should be built on a slight downgrade,
if possible, in order to facihtate the passage of loaded sleds. The
usual type is one whose floor is supported on parallel stringers,
from 12 to 15 inches in diameter resting on abutments and piers
which are made of logs from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, built
up in crib-fashion. The piers are 10 or 12 feet square and are
commonly placed from 12 to 16 feet apart, and filled with stone
to give them stability. The floor is made of skids from 6 to 10
inches in diameter, placed across the stringers close enough to
form a solid roadbed, and on these a thick covering of bark is
spread to hold the snow, and prevent the sled track from break-
ing up when the load passes over it. The skids are held in place
by stringers which are laid on top of them, one on each side of
the bridge.
Piers are not adapted for use in a stream bed, because freshets
are apt to carry them away. Under such circumstances or where
the bridge crosses a wide stream the cribs are placed from 20 to
25 feet apart and the stringers are supported between them by
piles driven to bed rock at intervals of 8 or 10 feet.
When the stream is too wide for a single span, the cribs may
be built in the water, heavily loaded with stone and provided
with a "rake" on the upstream face to divert refuse and ice to
either side of the crib. When long spans are employed it is cus-
tomary to use five stringers. Deep depressions often are filled
with cribbing built up to grade level.
On roads where the snow drifts badly snowsheds are occa-
sionally built in order to keep the road open with a minimum of
of hand shoveling. They also are employed on steep pitches to
keep the ground free from snow, so that the speed of sleds can be
controlled. Snowsheds are built in several difterent forms one
of which is shown in Fig. 40.
The framework is constructed of poles 6 or 8 inches in diam-
eter and heavy brush is placed on the sides and roof to prevent
SLEDS AND SLED-HAULING
167
the entrance of snow. The height and width of the sheds is
dependent on the size of the sleds used and the maximum height
of loads hauled.
The cost of two-sled roads ranges from $150 to $800 per mile,
the average seldom exceeding $500.
Photograph by D. X. Rogers
Fig. 40. — A Snow Shed on a Two-sled Road. Maine.
They require at least from 8 to 1 2 inches of snow for successful
operation and in the Lake States and the Northeast conditions
are seldom favorable for their use until the middle or latter part
of December. Hauling begins at this time and continues without
interruption until the logs are all on the landing, or until the
season breaks up and the snow leaves the roads.
Three machines play an important part in the maintenance
of a main two-sled road; namely, the snowplow, the rutter and
the sprinkler. They are frequently made by the camp black-
I 68 LOGGING
smith, but sno\\'plows and rutters are also sold by dealers in
logging supplies.
Plows are employed after each heavy snowfall to clear a
right-of-way along the road wide enough to permit loaded sleds
to pass. They are built in several patterns. A common t}pe is
V-shaped, with flaring sides 4 feet high which are bolted to a
hesLvy pair of runners. The plow is drawTi by from eight to
sixteen horses. Patent steel snowplows weighing about 2000
pounds can be bought for $175. They can be made in camp
for from $35 to S50.
The snowplow is followed by the rutter which cuts a square
or round rut for the sled runners. The machine is mounted on
a hea\y set of runners and has two chisel-Hke blades which may
be raised or lowered so that a rut of any desired depth can be
secured. Sno\\'plows and rut cutters are often combined in
one machine, especially in those patterns offered by logging
supply houses. A rut cutter can be purchased for from Si 00
to $115.
Long hauls, ascending grades and long, level stretches are
iced so that larger loads can be hauled. A road on which four
or more trips can be made daily is not iced unless a large amount
of timber is to be hauled over it. Descending grades and
secondary roads are not iced.
The sprinkler consists of a tank about 8 feet by 6 feet by 5 feet
in size, built of dressed and matched plank, and mounted on a
hea\'y pair of sleds. It costs about S50. The tank, which holds
from 30 to 35 barrels of water, will sprinkle from one-fourth to
one-third of a mile of road. A short piece of i-inch iron pipe is
fitted into each of the rear lower corners of the tank directly over
the sled ruts. An overhanging piece of sheet iron is attached so
that it hangs over the opening in the pipes and, when the wooden
plugs are pulled out of the latter, the water plays on this sheet
and throws a spray over the rut, which on freezing makes a solid
ice coating.
A water heater consisting of a round wrought steel tube 18
inches in diameter equipped with a smoke pipe and a fire door
is sometimes placed in the tank. A fire built in it prevents the
SLEDS AND SLED-HAULING
169
water from freezing. Sprinklers are filled either by gravity from
a spring or brook, or else water is drawn up in a barrel by means
of a cable and horse draft.
The rutting and sprinkling are done by a special crew who
usually operate at night and whose sole duty is to keep the road
in shape for hauHng. Under ordinary circumstances, in addition
to such men as are required continually at points where grades
must be sanded, or snubbing devices operated, one man can
keep two miles of main road in repair. One four-horse team and
two men can operate the sprinkler on from 4 to 6 miles of road.
Fig. 41. — A Sprinkler being filled with Water from a Brook. Maine.
The average monthly maintenance charge on a 6-mile haul on a
Maine operation was approximately $75 per mile. Other work
required to maintain a two-sled road consists of shoveling out
deep drifts after storms, banking and skidding up roads on side
hills, where the sleds ''slough" to one side and keeping a snow
covering on bridges.
After one season's work a road requires a general overhauling
to prepare it for the next winter's use. This work is done early
in the fall at the time road building begins. Bridges are strength-
ened where necessary, the roadbed built up on slopes where
weaknesses have become apparent, sags occasioned by the last
170 LOGGING
winter's haul are filled, and any general improvements made that
the previous season's work have shown to be advisable, such as
the elimination of undesirable curves and grades. This work
costs from $25 to $100 per mile of road.
Operation. — The practice followed in preparing a main two-
sled road for hauling varies somewhat on different operations.
Preparation often begins two or three weeks previous to hauling,
when a crew goes over the road filling in soft places and cut-
ting out windfalls which may have dropped across the road. A
forward pair of two-sled runners is then loaded with two small
logs whose rear ends are allowed to drag on the road where the
horses travel. Several loads of this character are hauled to the
landing, followed by heavier loads again dragged on the same
sled. When the road is thoroughly packed, a few light two-sled
loads are hauled over the road after each snowfall. Just previous
to the commencement of the main haul a rutter is run over the
road followed by the sprinkler which makes an iced rut in which
the sled runners travel. This preparatory work costs $10 or
$12 per mile.
When hauHng is about to begin, the roads past the skidways
are broken out by a snowplow and if necessary by shoveHng.
Then an empty or hghtly loaded sled is drawn over the road to
break a track. The snow on the skidways is shoveled off and
the empty sleds drawn by two or four horses are ranged along-
side for loading. Logs are sometimes frozen so solidly that they
cannot be loosened by hand and a small charge of d>Tiamite
must be exploded in the pile. On steep mountain roads it is
customary to place partial loads on the sleds at the upper skid-
ways and "top-out" the loads from skidways on the lower
levels. Sleds are loaded by hand, by the crosshaul and by
power loaders.
Hand loading is used where the logs are not large. It is a
common method in the spruce forests of the Northeast. Two
skids are placed so that they span the interval between the crib-
work of the skidway and the sled bunks and the logs are rolled
over the skids by the loaders. As the load is built up, the skids
are raised and placed on top of each succeeding tier of logs.
SLEDS AND SLED-HAULING • 171
Large logs are loaded with a team and cross-haul unless the
skid ways are higher than the sled bunks.
Horse loaders or "jammers" are frequently used in the Lake
States. These consist of a derrick and swinging boom mounted
on a heavy sled, equipped with hoisting blocks and tackle. The
jammer is drawn from one skidway to another by a team, and is
placed directly behind the sleds to be loaded with the boom so
placed that logs may be gripped on the skidway with tackle,
elevated and transferred to the sleds. Power for hoisting is
furnished by the team which transports the jammer.
Power loaders are occasionally used in the Lake States.
They are mounted on sleds and have a stiff boom and a hoisting
engine driven either by steam or gasoline. They are transported
from one skidway to another by animals and are used in a manner
similar to the horse jammer.
Logs are bound on the sleds by chains. For high loads,
operators use a set of ten chains: Four |-inch short bunk or
corner bind chains which are used to bind the two outer logs
of the bottom tier to the rear bunk and the rocker. Four
|-inch "deck chains" each consisting of two parts. The first
part is 24 feet long and one end is fastened to a ring on one side
of the rocker or bunk. The other section is about 2 feet in
length and is attached to the rocker or bunk on the end opposite
the long chain. It has a ring on the end and a secondary chain
with a grab hook attached also fastened to it. One pair of deck
chains is used to bind the load after the second tier of logs has
been put on, and the other pair after the fourth tier has been
loaded. Two |-inch wrapper chains each about 40 feet long are
passed around the completed load, but are not attached to the
sled. The chains have a ring or bunk hook on one end and a grab
hook on the other.
Where large loads are hauled, a "potter" is sometimes used
to help bind the logs together. This is a round stick 3 or 4
inches in diameter and 2^ or 3 feet long, around the center of
which is fitted an iron clasp to which is fastened a short piece
of chain with a hook on the free end. Where two pairs of deck
chains are used, eight potters may be employed, four on each side
172 LOGGING
of the load. After the deck chains are placed on the first two
tiers, the hooks on the potters are caught in links on each deck
chain. The potters on the far side are held in a vertical posi-
tion by a log rolled against them, while those nearest the skid-
way may be turned down until the sled is loaded, in order not
to offer interference.
On well-maintained roads having favorable descending grades,
four horses can haul from 5000 to 8000 feet per load, while two
horses can haul from 2500 to 4000 feet. On unfavorable grades
the capacity of four horses may be from 2000 to 3000 feet, log
scale, and for two horses from 1250 to 1500 feet.
The number of daily trips made by teams for given distances
is influenced by the weight and condition of the animals, the
character of the road and the time required to load and unload
the sleds. Horses tire on long hauls with hea\y loads, conse-
quently more timber can be hauled with lighter loads because
of the greater speed possible. Horses cannot travel more than
24 miles daily for long periods, and this should be cut down to
20 miles when possible. The number of round-trips for a given
length of haul is approximately as follows :
6-mile haul 2 round-trips
5-mile haul 2 round-trips
4-mile haul 2-3 round-trips
3-mile haul 3 round-trips
2-mile haul 4-5 round-trips
i-mile haul 6-7 round-trips
Steam Log Haulers. — As early as 1885 the attention of loggers
was directed to the problem of introducing some form of mechani-
cal traction to replace horses on long sled hauls, but it was some
years before a satisfactory machine was placed on the market.
In 1889, Geo. T. Glover placed four log haulers on operations
in Michigan. These were probably the first machines used for
this purpose and, although they were not a success, they were
the forerunners of the more recent ones that have proved to be
of great value.
The first successful log hauler was patented by 0. A. Lombard
of Waterville, Maine, who adopted the general principles of the
SLEDS AND SLED-HAULING
173
dri\ing gear on geared locomotives, substituting for driving
wheels a special form of heavy traction device.
The essential features of the hauler are a locomotive-t}pe
boiler mounted on a heavy reinforced channel-iron frame, which
also supports the cab and coal tender at the rear. The machine
is supported in front on a narrow tread sled, which is so con-
structed that it may be run either forward or backward. A pilot,
who sits on the front of the machine, steers the hauler by means
of this sled.
I'lG. 42. — A Lombard ^U-am L..g llaukr.
The weight of the machine rests chiefly on two special traction
devices placed under the rear end of the boiler. Each consists
of a heavy steel runner, hung on a 4|-inch shaft and equipped on
each end with a heavy box in which runs an iron shaft carrying
a heavy steel sprocket wheel. Each set of sprocket wheels
meshes into and carries an endless tread chain 12 inches wide
and 14 feet long, which is armed with calks and furnishes the
tractive surface. The weight of the engine is distributed over
the surface of the tread chain by two tool steel roller chains, which
174 LOGGING
run in a tool steel channel attached to the underside of the steel
runner inside of the tread chain. A bearing surface of approxi-
mately 4^ square feet is given to each tread chain which is
sufficient for tractive purposes and does not tear up the road.
The boiler which is equipped with locomotive boiler attach-
ments is 15 feet long, 36 inches in diameter and is built for a
working pressure of 200 pounds. The water tank is placed
under the boiler directly in front of the fire box and has a capa-
city of ten barrels, which will run the hauler for 5 miles.
The engine has four vertical 6|-inch by 8-inch cyHnders which
transmit power by a series of gears to the rear sprocket wheel
on each runner. Two cylinders are placed on each side of the
forward part of the boiler. The log hauler weighs from 17 to 22
tons when loaded with fuel and water. The average cost is
$5000 each.
Steam log haulers are used extensively in the Lake States,
in the Northeast and in Canada.
Some advantages possessed by the machine are that the
annual depreciation and repairs are less than the depreciation
on an equivalent number of animals; the necessity of bringing
in large quantities of feed is obviated; and the machine can be
operated day and night b}' employing two crews. Hauls exceed-
ing 4 miles can generally be made cheaper ^^^th a log hauler
than with animals.
The fuel most commonly used is wood because of its accessi-
bilit}'. Under average conditions a cord of 2-foot fairly dry wood
will run a hauler approximately 8 miles, while a ton of soft coal
will run it about 24 miles. Watering places must be pro\ided
along the road at intervals of from 3 to 5 miles.
The operation of a hauler requires a crew of from three to
five men; namely, one engineer, one fireman, one pilot and one
or two trainmen when from ten to twelve sleds are hauled.
The average speed with loaded sleds is 4^ miles per hour,
and with a train of empty sleds the speed is about 6 miles per
hour.
The cost of road construction for log haulers is greater than
for animals because stronger bridges must be built, steep down-
SLEDS AND SLED-HAULING
175
grades side-banked and timbered, and all curves strongly side-
skidded to prevent the sleighs leaving the road. Sharp curves
should be avoided because it is difficult to keep a train of sleds
in the road.
On long, level hauls it is customary to rut and ice the roads
to increase the hauling capacity. This may be done daily on
the last return trip from the landing, the rutter and sprinkler
being attached to the rear of the train. As a rule, however, the
road is maintained by a separate crew.
Fig. 43. — Type of Sled used with a Steam Log Hauler.
Sleds are made stronger than for animal haul because they not
only bear a heavier load but are subject to severe strain in stop-
ping and starting. The gauge is usually about 8 feet in order
that the hauler may travel inside of the ruts.
Where the road has steep ascending or descending grades three
or four sleds compose a "turn" because in the first instance the
machine cannot pull loads of much greater weight and in the
second, sleds have a tendency to "jacknife" and run out of
the rut.
In mountain regions, steam log haulers are used on the main
road only because the cost of constructing suitable secondary
roads is too great. Sleds are hauled by horses to a central point
on the main road and there made into turns for the log hauler.
In a flat region the hauler may operate direct from the skidway
to the landing, because of cheap road construction.
Rollways at landings should be arranged so that sleds can be
run along the side of them and all be unloaded without respot-
176 LOGGING
ting. The hauler then need not remain during unloading but
can at once start on the return trip to the skidways with the
empties from the preceding turn. This method of operation
necessitates the use of three sets of sleds; namely, one at the
skidways, one on the road and one at the landing. The in-
creased cost of equipment is more than offset b}^ the greater
capacity of the hauler and the decreased labor cost at the
landing.
Haulers in the Adirondacks have carried fifteen cords of
spruce pulp wood over roads having 10 and 11 per cent grades.
Distance records of 84 miles in twenty-four hours have been
reported. The heaviest loads have been hauled in the Lake
States on ice roads. A single log hauler in Wisconsin has hauled
fourteen sled loads of hardwood in one train, each sled bearing
from 6000 to 7000 feet, making three or four trips daily on a
round-trip of 12 miles. In Minnesota, trains of nine sleds, each
bearing 12,000 feet of white and Norway pine, have been trans-
ported by one hauler.
The average cost of operating a hauler of this character in
Ontario was $15 per day for coal and oil, and $15 for wages and
board of the train crew. The hauler made three turns daily on
a road between 7 and 8 miles long hauhng from nine to twelve
sleds per trip, an average of thirty loads. Each sled carried
eighty logs, or a total daily haul of 2400 logs. The company
estimated that the hauler did the work of twenty teams at a
reduction of S25 daily for wages, and from $10 to $15 saving in
the amount that would have been expended for horse feed. A
further saving was effected during the summer months since idle
horses cost from $25 to $40 each to feed while there is no expense
for the hauler.^
A record- of one machine for a season's haul in Stetson Town,
Franklin County, Maine, from January 11 to March 6, 1907,
running day and night shifts, is shown in the following:
1 See Logging by Steam in Ontario Forests. Canada Lumberman, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada, September, 191 1, p. 77.
2 From the Mechanical Traction of Sleds, by Asa S. Williams. Forestry Quar-
terly, Vol. VI, 1908, p. 361.
SLEDS AND SLED-HAULING 177
Length of haul 7.5 miles
Total miles traveled 2850
Actual speed 4 to 6 miles per hour
Sleds hauled 551
Largest number of sleds in i turn. . . 5
Total sleds used daily 21
Fuel used 350 cords of 2-foot hardwood
Elapsed time 65 days
Running time 53 days, 19 hours, 45 minutes
Lost time 6 days, 4 hours, 15 minutes
Total log scale 3,403,332 feet, log scale
Scale per sled 6225 feet, log scale
Scale per turn 18,052 feet, log scale
Largest train 37, 710 feet, log scale
The saving by the use of the hauler was marked, since sixty-
two horses would have been required to handle the same amount
of timber.
CH.\PTER XIII
WHEELED \EHICLES
Wheeled vehicles may be used where snow is not available as
a bottom on which to move logs. They are employed for sum-
mer logging in the Lake States, and for year round logging in
the South. Southwest, the sugar pine region of California and
the Pacihc Coast region.
TWO-^\■HEELED VEHICLES
Bummers. — A low truck called a bummer or self-loading
skidder has come into extensive use in the flat and roUing hard-
wood and the yellow pine forests
of the South, especially in Arkan-
sas and Louisiana. A similar ve-
hicle is also used in some places in
the Inland Empire. In the South,
bummers are often made by the
camp blacksmith and have sohd
black gum wheels with 14-inch
faces and a diameter of from 18 to
21 inches. Those oft'ered by manu-
facturers of logging supplies have
a skeleton wheel 24 inches in di-
ameter with a 6-inch tire. The
sohd wheel is preferred by many,
because it gives a greater bearing
surface on soft ground.
Hea\y steel axles support a
wooden. bunk from 2^ to 3^ feet
in length and slightly concave on
its upper surface. A tongue 5^
feet long is attached to the bunk and serves both as a loading
17S
Fig. 44. — The Method of loading
Logs on a Bummer.
WHEELED VEHICLES 1 79
lever and as a point of attachment for the draft power. Small
logs are held on the bunk with chains and large logs either with
tongs attached to the front face of the bunk or by a short chain
to a breastplate on the tongue.
Bummers can be built by a camp blacksmith for from $12 to
$15 each, and can be purchased from manufacturers for $40 each.
In loading, a bummer is driven up to a log and backed around
against it near the end. The tongue is then brought to a per-
pendicular position which permits the attachment of the tongs
3 or 4 feet from the end of the log (Fig. 44). The team is then
hitched to a chain on the end of the tongue and is driven forward
until the tongue has been brought to a horizontal position, which
brings the log on top of the wheels. The trucks are turned by
the horses until the log drops on the bunk. The load is then
ready to start for the skidway (Fig. 44) .
Unloading may be accomplished by a reversal of the process,
or by disengaging the tong points by a blow from a cant hook or
maul and dragging the bummer from under the log.
When several small logs are handled at one time, tongs are
replaced with chains and loading is done from a rough skidway
consisting of a single skid stick with one end raised high enough
from the ground to enable the logs to be rolled on the bunks
with cant hooks.
Bummers of this character may be used to advantage only in a
region fairly free from brush, where the bottom is smooth and suf-
ficiently hard to prevent the low wheels from miring and where
gentle grades to the skidway can be secured. They are seldom
used for distances exceeding 40 rods. Bummers are less service-
able than high wheels on ascending grades, since they pull harder.
In ten hours a bummer will handle from 8500 to 14,000 feet
of yellow pine for a distance of 200 yards, and from 4000 to 6000
feet for a distance of 450 yards.
On an Alabama operation the crews operated in units of four-
teen men and seven bummers, organized as follows*
I foreman 2 swampers
1 loader i skidway man
2 "bunch" teamsters 2 "bunch" teams
7 bummer teamsters 7 bummer teams
I50 LOGGING
The swampers cut the limbs from the logs and cleared out skid-
ding trails for the bunch teams, which dragged the logs to central
points available to the bummer teams; the loader assisted the
bummer teamsters in loading, and a man was stationed at a
skidway along the railroad to help the teamsters unload and
"tail in" the logs to the forward part of the skidway.
In some sections of Arkansas a teamster, two horses and a
bummer are assigned to each felHng crew and handle the daily
output of two men, skidding for a maximum distance of 600 feet
from the track. Logs containing less than 150 feet are snaked
and if the bottom is dry all logs above this size are handled with
bummers. One swamper serves three or four skidding teams.
Log Carts. — In all t}pes of carts the logs are sAviing beneath
the wheels with the rear ends dragging on the ground. The
height of wheels ranges from 5 to 10 feet with a corresponding
variation in srauore.
Fig. 45. — The Perr>- Log Cart in position to load. This cart has wheels
either 42 or 5 J feet high.
A cart used in the Coastal Plain region has an arched axle and
wheels 45^ or 5I feet high. The hounds of the cart are fastened
on either side of the tongue by a heavy bolt. A bunk rests on
top of the axle and carries two upright guides between which the
WHEELED VEHICLES
I»I
tongue fits. The latter is held in place by a spring latch. When
the cart is to be loaded it is driven up to one end of a log, then
backed until the axle is directly over that part of the log to which
the chains or grapples are to be attached. The latch on the
guides is then released, the team is backed for a step or two and
the hounds are forced into a position nearly vertical, which turns
the bunk through a quarter circle and brings it near enough to the
ground to permit the grapples or chains to be attached. The
elevation of the log is accompHshed by driving the team forward,
which brings the hounds and tongue to a horizontal position.
^jii-i
Fig. 46. — The Perty Log Cart loaded.
Wheels of this character may be used in a region where it
would not be possible to snake, or to use bummers without
swamping out trails. They may be driven readily over light
standing brush or in down timber wdth a minimum of swamp-
ing. It is not customary to cut trails for them. The capacity
of the wheels is one large, or from three to four small logs. Two
horses or mules are employed for each cart.
Carts with larger wheels than those mentioned are in ex-
tensive use in the South, Southwest, Lake States, sugar pine
region of California and, to a Hmited extent, both in the Inland
Empire and in the Pacific Coast region. The wheels are from 7
to 12 feet in diameter and have tires from 5 to 10 inches wide.
When one or two logs are handled they are suspended with
grapples, and when several constitute a load chains are used.
l82 LOGGING
The chief distinction between the several patterns of carts is
in the mechanism for raising the logs from the ground.
One t^'pe in the southern pine forests has a tongue about 9
feet long. The chains holding the grapples are attached to a
hand-winch with a horizontal axis which is mounted directly over
the axles. The load is raised from the ground by revolving the
winch with hand levers and it is kept from turning backward by
a ratchet. When the carts are not loaded the animals are
hitched short to faciUtate hauhng and guiding. Where large
logs are being handled the cart is driven to the small end of
the log, squared around over it and then backed to a point about
midway between the two ends so that when the log is elevated
the forward end will be clear from the ground and the rear end
dragging lightly. If the log does not hang properly when ele-
vated it is again lowered and the grapples attached at another
point. The tongue of the cart is fastened to the log by means
of a chain which is passed around it two or three times, then
carried forward and wrapped around the front end of the log.
The draft power is attached to the free end of the chain, or
to a chain on the end of the tongue.
Another form of high wheeled log cart is one having a heavy-
wooden bunk and a tongue from 12 to 16 feet long. A chain is
attached to the front side and passes over the top of the bunk,
ending in a ring to which the grapple hooks are fastened. In
operation the tongue is raised to a position slightly past the
vertical, being prevented from tipping backward by a pole 10 or
12 feet long which is fastened on the upper side of the tongue,
3 or 4 feet in front of the bunk. The elevation of the tongue
lowers the grapples to the ground so that they can be attached
to the log. A team then pulls the tongue to a horizontal posi-
tion, which raises the front end of the log clear of the ground.
The tongue is then chained to the log, the horses attached to the
front end of it and the load is ready to move. By using chains,
several logs may be handled at one time.
Carts of this character are used for handling short hardwood
logs in the Lake States, sugar pine in CaHfornia and yellow pine
in the South.
WHEELED VEHICLES
183
Another t^pe known as the ''shp tongue" cart has a tongue
28 or 30 feet long, which shdes between the hounds of the cart.
When the cart is in motion the tongue is held in a fixed position
by a catch which the driver may release by a trigger when ready
to load. There is a roller directly over the axle, to which the
grapples are attached by chains. Fastened to this roller is a
short lever arm which is connected to the sliding tongue by
means of a chain. The cart is driven over a log, the catch hold-
ing the slip tongue is loosened, the team backed up and the
Fig. 47. — A Slip Tongue Cart in a Southern Yellow Pine Forest. Lever
arm is elevated so that the grabs can be removed from the logs. Texas.
tongue slipped to the rear. The roller is so weighted that it
revolves in a quarter circle, carrying the lever arm to a nearly
vertical position. The grapples are then fastened to the logs
and the team is started. The tongue slips forward, pulling the
lever arm to a horizontal position, and raises the front end of
the log from the ground. When the short lever arm reaches the
catch on the tongue it is automatically locked. The team then
starts for the skidway with the load.
High wheels of this character are especially adapted for a flat
and rolling country with a firm, smooth bottom and an absence
184 LOGGING
of heavy underbrush. They are usually employed on hauls
not exceeding one-half mile but occasionally are used for dis-
tances of from 2 to 2§ miles. In the pine forests of the extreme
South they often are used when the distance does not exceed 100
feet. When used as a skidding rig in the southern pine forests
they seldom require any road construction other than swamping
out a trail through the slash along which the teams can pass.
The forests are often sufficiently open to permit the passage of
the carts without previous preparation. The practice prevails in
some regions of felling the timber in strips, beginning at the back
side of the skidding area where a strip from 100 to 200 feet wide
is cut parallel to the railroad and then skidded. The work con-
tinues in this manner until the railroad is reached. This permits
the teamsters to haul the greater part of the time through stand-
ing timber free from brush, which greatly facilitates the work.
It is claimed by some loggers that the efl&ciency of a crew is in-
creased 25 per cent by this method.
Roads are made and roughly graded in the hardwood forests
of the Lake States where brush is abundant. Since short logs
only are handled the roads need not be straight and boulders and
stumps can be passed by a detour.
In the lir forests of the Northwest where high-wheeled log
"sulkies" are sometimes used, a well-graded dirt road 25 or 30
feet wide, with gentle grades and easy curves is required. The
cost per mile is about Si 500.
From two to six animals are employed to haul log carts, de-
pending on the character of the roadbed and the size and
amount of timber hauled. Mules are preferred in the South,
and horses in the North and West.
A crew in the southern pine forests often consists of three
teamsters, one or two "bunch" teamsters, one or two swampers
and one skidway man. The "bunch" teams yard the logs along
the roads at places convenient to the log carts.
In the Lake States, two pairs of wheels and two bunch teams
are used by a crew. The brushy nature of the country requires
about four men for the swamping and other men with cant hooks
to roll the bunched logs tosrether into loads for each log cart.
WHEELED VEHICLES 185
In longleaf pine log carts drawn by two mules haul from 200
to 500 feet of long logs at one load. When four mules are em-
ployed, from 800 to 1000 feet may be handled, but six mules
are required for over this amount.
In the Lake States the load for four horses ranges between
1000 and 1200 feet, log scale, with a maximum of 1800 feet. In
the sugar pine region of California, from six to seven carts, each
drawn by four horses weighing from 1500 to 1800 pounds are
used in one camp and will put in an average of from 100,000 to
125,000 feet daily.
High wheeled carts range in price from $125 to $175 each.
WAGONS
Wagons are a desirable form of vehicle for stocking small saw-
mill plants, transporting timber to the railroad on large opera-
tions where the haul exceeds from 800 to 1000 feet, and for log-
ging isolated tracts on which there is not sufficient timber to
warrant the construction of a logging railroad.
They may be used to transport logs direct from the stump to
the mill for distances of from 2 to 4 miles, although they are most
extensively employed to haul logs from the stump to a railroad,
stream or chute. The average length of haul in the fiat and
rolling pine lands of the South is approximately one-fourth of a
mile.
Mule Carts. — In the Coastal Plain region, a type of 4-wheeled
wagon called the "mule cart" is used on the uplands for hauling
logs to the railroad. It consists of two pairs of trucks, the wheels
of the forward pair being 4 feet, and the rear pair 6 feet, in
diameter. The forward trucks have a straight axle and are
equipped with a tongue of the usual length for a wagon, while the
rear pair has an arched axle and bunk to which is attached a
tongue which replaces the reach in an ordinary wagon. When
the mule cart is loaded this tongue is chained down to a ring on
the bunk of the forward pair of wheels. The logs are swung
under the rear pair of wheels and only the forward ends of the
logs are raised from the ground. The forward pair of trucks
may be detached and used for skidding purposes, in which case
1 86
LOGGING
the log is suspended under the axle by means of grabs, or tongs.
Mule carts do not possess any special advantages over a wagon,
but are preferred because laborers are famihar with their use.
The usual maximum length of haul is 500 yards, but it is
sometimes extended to a mile or more in scattered timber.
The average load per cart varies between 200 and 400 feet, log
scale, with a daily output of from 3500 to 5000 feet, log scale, for
a one-fourth mile haul. The cost of hauling and loading under
these conditions will range between $1.50 and $2.25 per thousand
feet.
Four-wheeled Wagons. — These are strongly constructed, with
32-inch to 38-inch front wheels and 34-inch to 40-inch rear wheels
of wood or steel, 3-inch to 6-inch tires, ^ extension reach for
Fig, 48. — A Four-wheeled Log Wagon at the Skidway. Missouri.
handling logs of various lengths, heavy bolsters with adjustable
blocks, stiff tongues for oxen and drop tongues for horses and
mules, and cast or steel skeins, or steel axles. They have a rated
^ Some loggers prefer 3-inch to 3 J-inch tires for two animals, and 4-inch to 5-inch
tires for four animals.
WHEELED VEHICLES 187
carrying capacity of from 5000 to 15,000 pounds. Spikes are
used on the back bolster to prevent the logs from sUding for-
ward when hauling in a hilly region. Steel axles are not as
popular as skeins, because of the difficulty of repairing them in
the camp blacksmith shop.
Log wagon wheels are sometimes boxed with boards to keep
mud from accumulating on the spokes. The box is constructed
of rough boards nailed to the rims and closely fitted around the
hub.
From two to five mules or horses, and from six to ten oxen
are generally used for draft purposes, although heavy wagons are
sometimes drawn by traction engines.
Four-wheeled wagons range in weight from 1300 to 2000 pounds
and with cast skeins can be bought for from $115 to $175 each,
including whiflle trees, evener and neck yoke, or tongue chains
and stay chains. The bare wagon is offered by some firms for
from $100 to $110 each.
In some parts of the Inland Empire very heavy log wagons
are employed for hauling from storage yards or skidways to the
logging railroad.
Wagons used on an operation in Montana had standard height
wheels with 6-inch tires, bunks 6 feet long and 10 feet apart,
with outer ends fitted with sway bars for the attachment of
binding chains. The rear trucks were equipped with heavy hand
brakes operated by a man who traveled on foot behind the load.
From 2500 to 4000 feet, log scale, were loaded on the wagons by
gravity from elevated skidways at the terminal of a log slide.
The road was one mile long and mostly downgrade, with some
pitches of 6 and 8 per cent. Four horses were used for draft
and each team averaged five round-trips per day between the
railroad and the log chute and handled from 15,000 to 18,000
feet, log scale.
In the sugar pine region of California very heavy 4-wheeled
trucks of twelve tons' capacity are used for log transportation
when a traction engine is employed for draft power. These
wagons have 54-inch solid or skeleton wheels, 20-inch tires,
a short coupling tongue, and are equipped with hand brakes and
l88 LOGGING
binding chains. From 5000 to 7500, feet log scale, maybe loaded
on one wagon.
Six-wheeled \yagons. — Wagons with six wheels have been
placed on the market in the South in recent years. The rear
trucks, which carry from 60 to 70 per cent of the load, consist of
a rigid frame bearing two axles and four wheels arranged in the
same manner as in the 8- wheeled type. The rear truck is con-
nected to the forward one by the usual form of wagon reach.
They are designed to carry heavier loads than 4-wheeled wagons,
and to ehminate the heavy draft and difficulty in backing and
turning in a short compass which are common to the 8-wheeled
wagons.
They are quoted complete, f.o.b. cars at the factory at from
$118 to $125 each.
Eight-wheeled Wagons. — Eight- wheeled wagons are in extensive
use in the southern pine forests and in the hardwood forests of
the Mississippi bottoms.
They are a heavy draft vehicle, more difficult to turn and to
back than a 4-wheeled wagon but are capable of carrying a
much heavier load because of the wide tires and the distribu-
tion of the load over eight wheels. They can be used on a dirt
road sooner after a rain than can 4-wheeled wagons, and often
a road will improve under 8-wheel traffic where it would deteri-
orate under that of four wheels. The bunks are also lower than
on 4-wheelers and the wagon can be loaded more readily.
On short hauls four or five mules are frequently used with
8-wheeled wagons, but on long hauls they are not desirable for
this type of wagon because of its heavy draft, oxen being the
best, especially for heavy loads and on unfavorable bottom.
From three to five yoke constitute a team.
Eight-wheeled wagons are successfully used with traction
engine draft, three or four wagons each holding from 1000 to
1500 feet, log scale, constituting a train.
The distinctive features of an 8-wheeled wagon are the for-
ward and rear trucks which on some types are rigid, consequently
sharp turns cannot be made without dragging some or all of the
wheels. Others have the front trucks so arranged that the two
WHEELED VEHICLES
189
sets of wheels can turn independently, thus reducing the resist-
ance. All wheels are of the same diameter, varying in different
vehicles from 32 to 36 inches in height.
The log bunks, with adjustable blocks, are supported midway
between the wheels of each truck and project slightly above the
wheels. A short reach is attached to the forward and rear
trucks by flexible joints.
Eight-wheelers have an estimated capacity, on good roads,
of from 9000 to 20,000 pounds weight. They weigh from 1200
to 1800 pounds.
Fig. 49. — An Eight-wlicckd Lug Wagon with a Load of Yellow Line Lugs.
Louisiana.
The price of one type of 8- wheeled wagon ranges from $125
to $140, the variation covering differences in size of axles and
tires.
Wagon Equipment. — The equipment used with log wagons
on southern pine operations is as follows :
I ax.
I cant hook.
I five-sixteenth-inch chain, 20 feet long, the ends of which are bolted to the
bunks of the forward and rear trucks.
1 one-half-inch chain, 12 feet long, with a grab hook on one end and a loading
hook on the other. This chain and the one above form the cross-haul used
in loading.
2 hardwood skids about 9 feet long and 4 inches in diameter.
I hickory binding pole.
I90 LOGGING
Roads. — On short hauls the only preparation made for roads
is to cut out a right-of-way through the brush. If the bottom
becomes heavy for travel a new route is selected. Where a
large quantity of logs must pass over a single route, a good dirt
road is built on high ground, streams bridged, wet places cor-
duroyed and sufficient repair work done to maintain it in good
condition.
The best season for hauling is during the summer months,
when the ground is dry and hard, for logging trucks can then
handle maximum loads with the least amount of trouble. In
swampy sections and on bottom-land logging often has to be sus-
pended during the rainy period.
Hauling. — A common practice among companies who own
their equipment and do their own logging is to work several
wagons to a crew. The logs, after being swamped, are skidded
with a bunch team to some place convenient to the wagons.
The wagon teamsters then are concerned only with loading and
hauling the logs. On small operations and where small con-
tractors may be operating, each wagon teamster does his owti
swamping, bunching and loading. The former method is con-
sidered the more efficient.
On a haul of one-fourth mile, one bunch team can skid logs
for two or three wagons, and for greater distances it can serve
more teams because of the fewer number of trips made. Each
wagon usually carries a pair of skidding tongs and, if the bunch
team gets behind, the wagon teamster unhooks his leaders or the
pole team and brings in a few logs. The number of swampers
required depends on the character of the timber and the under-
brush.
Wagons are loaded by the teamsters, who use a cross-haul
rig.
On short hauls large logs are not bound to the wagon, but on
long hauls or where the load consists of small logs it is customary
to pass a binding chain around the load and under the reach.
This chain is tightened by a hickory binding pole. The loading
chains are wrapped loosely around the logs, the loading skids
are placed on the reach, and the wagon is ready to start for the
WHEELED VEHICLES
191
skidway. Logs are unloaded by removing the binding chains,
placing skids in position and rolling the logs off the wagon by
means of cant hooks.
Hauling should be in charge of a team boss, who selects and
directs the preparation of skidwa}'s and logging roads, determines
the best method and equipment for hauling timber from par-
ticular sections, allots given crews to specified work, and sees
that all men and animals are employed to best advantage.
Skidways should be selected and prepared some days in advance
of actual use so that the hauling teams will not be delayed by lack
of storage space.
Fig.
Loading a Log \\ agon by means of the Cross-haui.
Missouri.
On good bottom and level ground two horses or mules should
handle from 400 to 600 feet per load and from 6000 to 10,000 feet
daily; four animals should handle from 600 to 800 feet per load,
and from 8000 to 12,000 feet daily. Five yoke of oxen will
handle from 600 to 1000 feet of logs per trip, depending on the
kind of bottom and the size of the timber.
The average number of trips daily for two horses or mules
is approximately as follows:
192 LOGGING
\ mile and less 12 to 15 trips
J to 5 mile 12 trips
^ to f mile 9 trips
f to i| miles 7 trips
ij to if miles. . , 6 trips
The contract prices^ for skidding and hauling yellow pine are
approximately as follows:
Distance.
Cost per 1000 feet.i
50-400 feet
J mile
1 mile
f mile
I mile
Over I mile
$0. 50-.S0. 75
I. 00- I .50
1.25- 2.00
1.50- 2.50
2-50- 2.75
3-50- 5 00
1 Based on a single team and driver earning S4 per day.
TR.A.CTIOX EXGIXES FOR WAGOX HAUL
Traction engines are used for transporting logs from the woods
to the mill where the amount of timber to be hauled is not great
enough to warrant the construction of a railroad, where the
grades are unfavorable for the use of animals and where timber
of large size and great weight must be handled. They are used
to a limited extent in the southern states but are more common
in the Northwest and in California.
A traction engine to give the best results requires a good stone
road but it works well on solid earth bottom. The ordinary
4-wheeled type is not successful in very swampy places, on very
rough roads or on dirt bottom during rainy periods because the
traction wheels soon render the road impassable.
Four-wheeled. — This traction engine has a locomotive-t}^e
boiler carrying about 165 pounds' steam pressure, and is equipped
to burn either coal, wood or oil. The boiler and other parts of
the engine are mainly supported on two traction wheels running
on axles attached on opposite sides of the fire box. The diameter
1 For logs averaging 10 per thousand feet. For logs running from 15 to 20
per thousand add from 15 to 20 cents per thousand to above prices. For oak add
50 cents per thousand.
WHEELED VEHICLES 1 93
of these wheels is ordinarily between 5 and 6 feet. The width of
tire is governed by the character of bottom over which the engine
is to travel. On ordinary roads from 20-inch to 24-inch tires are
satisfactory even for the largest machines.
The forward part of the engine is supported on a pair of
wheels 3I or 4 feet in diameter with from 6-inch to lo-inch tires.
These wheels carry only a small proportion of the total weight,
their chief function being to aid in steering. This is done by
means of a hand wheel placed at the rear of the engine in close
reach of the engineer.
The engine which develops from 20 to 30 horse-power is usually
of the single c\-linder type with a heavy flywheel.
The daily fuel requirements range between i^ and 2^ cords
of hardwood, or between i and ih tons of coal. About 2500
gallons of water are needed for the above amount of fuel.
On a Washington operation a 30-horse-power traction engine
has made a daily round trip of 30 miles, hauling 20,000 board
feet of green lumber up 15 per cent grades, and down 30 per cent
grades. This is probably the maximum capacity of an engine of
this t\pe.
Holt Three-wheeled. — This t^^^e has been developed largely for
use in logging on the Pacific Coast and has a return-tube water-
leg horizontal boiler supported on an I-beam frame. Almost
the entire weight of the machine rests on the rear traction wheels,
each 7I feet in diameter with a 24-inch tire. The fore part of the
engine is supported by a single 4-foot wheel used for steering.
Provision is made for the operation of the steering gear both
by hand and by power. A single cylinder 11 -inch by 12-inch
balanced valve engine is placed on top of the boiler, and at 165
pounds' steam pressure develops 60 horse-power. Power is
transmitted to the traction wheels by chains, and either wheel
may be driven independently of the other. This is especially
advantageous in making sharp turns. A radius of 25 feet is
practicable in operating a train of five cars.
Water tanks with a capacity of from 400 to 700 gallons are
carried on the frame directly in front of the boiler. The average
water requirement per day of ten hours is from 2500 to 3000
194
LOGGING
gallons. From i| to 3 cords of hardwood fuel, i to 2^ tons of
steam coal or from 200 to 300 gallons of fuel oil are required.
A special type of 3-\vheeled wagon is often employed for haul-
ing logs and lumber with this engine. The front wheel is 3I feet
in diameter, has a 12-inch tire and supports about one-fourth of
the load. The remainder of the weight is borne on two rear
wheels each 4^ feet high and with 16-inch tires. The load is
borne on a frame built to carry from 10 to 12 tons.
•TK?K»M|
1?^-
, wl:.l-j«pl\.
Fig. 51. — a Holt Three-wheeled Traction Engine hauhng Sugar Pine Logs.
California.
The manufacturers claim that a 60-horse-power engine will
haul a load of from 40 to 60 tons at a speed of from 2 to 3 miles
per hour, ascending grades as high as 10 per cent. Thirty thou-
sand feet of green lumber loaded on three trucks have been hauled
up a 10 per cent grade, and 15,000 feet of logs have been hauled
on two four-wheeled wagons o\'er a rough log road down a
17 per cent grade. An engine hauling empty wagons travels
3 or 4 miles per hour.
WHEELED VEHICLES 195
Caterpillar Gasoline Tractor} — This type represents a depar-
ture from the ordinary form of engine, for the traction wheels are
replaced by a special traction device similar in character to that
used on a steam log hauler.
The front end of the engine is carried on a single wheel which
also furnishes a means for steering.
The engine is a four-cylinder, four-cycle, water-cooled t)^pe
with 6|-inch by 8-inch cylinders and at 550 revolutions per
minute develops 45 horse-power. A 34-inch flywheel is attached
to the main shaft and aids in maintaining an even speed. Power
from this shaft is transferred to bevel gears on the rear of the
machine, which in turn transmit the power b}' chains to the
sprocket wheels in the traction device. A forward and reverse
motion are provided and two speeds may be secured by shifting
the gears. The high speed is 5 miles per hour, and the low and
reverse speeds 2^ miles.
The tractor carries a fuel tank of seventy gallons, and a water
tank of fifty-six gallons capacity. The latter is sufficient for
four or five days' running. Either kerosene or gasohne is used
for fuel, and from two to four gallons per hour are required,
depending on the amount of labor being performed.
The weight of the machine fully equipped is about 8 tons.
This t}Tpe of tractor is adapted to soft, sandy roads and steep
grades where the conditions are unfavorable for the use of
animals. The manufacturers claim that they may be operated
to excellent advantage on any road except one on which many
boulders are present. Loads of 18,000 feet of green lumber have
been hauled over roads having 12 and 14 per cent grades.
A forty-five-horse-power gasoline tractor costs $3500.
^ Alanufactured by The Holt Caterpillar Co., Peoria, Illinois.
CHAPTER XTV
POWER SKIDDING
The first patent on power skidding machinery in the United
States was granted on November 13, 1883, to Horace Butters of
Ludington, Michigan, and covered an overhead cableway de-
signed to get logs out of "pot holes" and swampy places in the
white pine forests. Perceiving the feasibility of using a machine
of this tx-pe in the cypress forests of North Carolina, the inventor
built some machines which were mounted on scows and floated
in the bayous and sloughs. They did not completely solve the
loggers' problems since they were limited in range from 700 to
800 feet and consequently could not reach a large part of the
timber.
In 1889, William Baptist put a ground system in operation
in a Louisiana swamp. It consisted of two large drums and an
engine and boiler mounted on a scow, from which an endless
cable passed out into the forest for a distance of one-half mile.
This later developed into the modern "slack-rope" system now
used on pullboats.
A third method called the "snaking system" was a later
development in the pine forests of the South.
THE CABLEWAY SYSTEM
This comprises a main wire cable, from i inch to i| inches in
diameter, suspended between two supports known, respectively,
as the "head spar" tree and the "tail" tree. These are usually
located from 600 to 750 feet apart, although the span is some-
times as great as 1500 feet. The greatest efficiency cannot be
obtained at the latter distance, because lighter loads must be
handled.
Head spar trees are located along the logging railroad at
intervals of approximately 1000 feet. They are selected by the
ig6
POWER SKIDDING
197
foreman before felling operations begin, must be straight and
sound, and should have a minimum diameter of 18 inches at
60 feet above ground. In order to make the spar more stable
the trees are topped before the rigging is placed.
In recent years a cableway skidder with a heavy steel spar
mounted on a skidder car has been placed on the market. This
spar replaces the head spar tree required by the earlier type and
is so constructed that it can be lowered to facilitate moving the
Fig. 52. — A Steel Spar Cableway Skidder showing Loading Boom in Front.
skidder from one set-up to another. The adjustment of the
blocks and the guying of the steel spar require only from one to
two hours, while a day is needed to take down the tackle, move
the skidder and adjust the blocks to a new head spar. The
great weight of the machine prevents its use on light or poorly
constructed track.
Tail trees, which are also chosen before felling begins, are
located from 150 to 250 feet apart and should be at least 18 inches
in diameter at 30 feet above ground.
198
LOGGING
One end of the main cable is passed around the tail tree at a
height of 25 or 30 feet and is then carried to a stump or tree in
the rear to which it is made fast. The tail
tree is braced with this cable and also with
an additional guy rope. The other end of
the main cable terminates in an eye near
the head spar tree and is connected, by
means of a clevis, to an extension cable
which passes through a block attached to
the head spar tree. The extension cable is
fastened to a stump in the rear by a "block
and fall" attachment, by which, with the
aid of a drum on the engine, the main cable
TAIL TREE
Fig. 53. — A Tail Tree
showing the Method of is tightened.
attaching the Blocks The head spar tree is also braced by cables
to the Tree; also the ^^ gj^^^^^ ^^ pjg ^^
Q The trolley which travels back and forth
on the main cable is operated by an out-
haul cable and a skidding line. The outhaul cable is f- or
f-inch in diameter and passes from a drum on the engine,
through a block in the head spar tree, through the trolley
and also through a block on the tail tree, after which it is
brought back and attached to the rear of the trolley. It serves
Head Spar Tree
Loading Cable
l.UB(]iD2 Rope
Loadiog Ci
llaii) Cable Ejteosi
Stay Rop.
Beel Blocks S: Ro|>.
By permission of the Lidgerwood Mfg. Co.
Fig. 54. — A Cableway Skidder showing the Arrangement of the Lines
for Skidding and Loading.
to draw the trolley out along the main cable. The f- or
|-inch skidding line passes from a drum on the engine, through
a block on the head spar tree, then through a block on the
trolley. It serves as a point of attachment for tongs or other
POWER SKIDDING
199
skidding devices. The logs are dragged up to the main cable
by this line, which also suspends them and serves to return the
trolley to the head spar tree.
When the trolley is run out from the head spar tr^e, the
skidding line sags between the two points of support and its
weight pulls the tongs against the trolley. The line is either
Fig. 55. — Cutting the Top from a Head Spar on which is placed the Main Cable
Rigging for a Cableway Skidder. Cypress Forest, Louisiana.
pulled down and dragged by hand to the logs to be skidded, an
operation requiring the services of 5 or 6 men and involving a
loss of time for the entire crew, or a patent slack puller is used
which draws the slack out of the skidding line. A third f-inch
cable is required'for operating the slack pulling device.
Power for operating the cableway system is provided by an
upright boiler and a pair of engines mounted on a steel frame,
200 LOGGING
which is supported on two sets of trucks, each of which is pivoted.
The machine is moved from one set-up to another by means of
a locomotive. On arrival at the location where it is to be used,
the frame is elevated above the rails by hydraulic jacks, the
trucks turned in a quarter circle, and a short span of track placed
imder each truck. The machine is then lowered and shunted
off to one side of the railroad by the side of the head spar tree,
where it is blocked up and remains until the next move is made.
This leaves the main railroad track clear for the operation of
logging trains.
The steel spar machine operates from the main track and may
be either moved about under its own power or hauled on a car
by a locomotive. In the first case the skidder is mounted on a
steel frame supported on heavy trucks to which power is trans-
mitted by a drive chain. In the second case the skidder is
mounted on a steel frame which is carried on a set of specially
designed flat cars. During operation the machine is elevated
above the cars by means of hydraulic jacks, and supported at
the corners by blocks. These cars are then pushed to the rear
of the machine so that empty log cars can be brought under
the forward part of the skidder for loading.
The three main drums on the skidder are arranged in a row in
front of the boiler. The forward drum handles the slack pulling
cable, the middle one the outhaul cable and the rear one the
skidding line.
In operation the outhaul and skidding drums are interlocked,
and when the outhaul cable is wound on its drum, the trolley is
drawn out towards the tail tree, carrying with it the skidding
line and the slack pulling line. When the trolley reaches the
point at which logs are to be secured the drums are stopped and
the interlocking device freed. WTien the slack pulling line is
wound on its drum ic operates the slack puller which runs out
the slack for the skidding line. The latter is then carried to a log,
or logs, which are attached to it by tongs or chokers. Logs can
be drawn in a distance of from 60 to 75 feet on either side of the
main cable by the attachment of short extensions to the main
skidding line. When the logs have been pulled in near the main
POWER SKIDDING
20I
cable the short Hnes are detached and the logs coupled directly
by tongs or chokers to the skidding line, which is then wound in,
and the log elevated wholly or partially from the ground. This
is accomplished by holding the outhaul in a fixed position by a
friction brake, until the log is in the position desired. The
skidding and outhaul drums are then interlocked and as the
skidding line is hauled in, the outhaul rope runs out, and the log
is held suspended. On arrival at the railroad the logs are dropped
in reach of a loading cable, and the trolley again returned to the
woods for another load.
Logging rotates around the head spar tree and from i8 to 22
tail trees are usually employed for each set-up, an area of from
25 to 40 acres being logged from one spot.
When the steel spar skidder is used it is not feasible to log in
a complete circle because of the difficulty of operating lines on
the rear side of the machine. As a rule, an arc of from 275 to
300 degrees is covered.
In order to prevent the fouling of the cables in very brushy
regions it is necessary to cut runs 5 or 6 feet wide, extending from
the head spar to each tail tree. Such work is usually done a
short time in advance of skidding. One man can cut the runs
when the brush is of medium size.
• By permission of the Lidgerwood Mfg. Co,
Fig. 56. — Method of Shifting the Main Cable from One Run to Another.
Two main cables are employed. While one is being used, the
rigging crew, composed of three men, is at work preparing the
new tail tree and placing the extra main cable in position on
202 LOGGING
the next run. When the timber available to one run is skidded, the
main cable is dropped to the ground and disconnected from
the main cable extension ; the trolley is placed on the new cable,
which is then connected up to the cable extension, and the whole
drawn taut for operation. It requires from 15 to 30 minutes to
make this change. The rigging crew then proceeds to transfer
the extra main cable to the next run. A block is placed on the
new tail tree and a f-inch cable is dragged from the engine out
over the new run, either by hand or by a horse. It is then
passed through the block on the new tail tree, and finally through
a block on the tail tree just abandoned. The end of the small
cable is attached to the main cable and by winding the former on
a drum of the engine, the main cable is dragged around into the
new run, having reversed ends. It is then made ready for use by
attaching it to the tail tree.
Many cableway skidders are provided with extra drums placed
on the forward part of the skidder car, which are used for loading
the logs on cars and for spotting empty cars under the loading
boom. These drums are operated by an independent engine.
The loading cable is |- or |-inch in diameter, and passes from the
drum up through a block on the head spar tree, then through a
block, directly over the log car, that is suspended from a cable
fastened to the head spar and to a stump on the opposite side
of the railroad track. The loading operation is independent of
skidding.
The cableway system is especially adapted for logging in
swampy regions where the bottom is too soft for animals; in very
brushy sections; on steep and rocky slopes; in taking timber
across canyons and gorges, or in bringing it up out of canyons to
plateaus above or lowering it into valleys; in handling dense
stands of small timber or heavy stands of large timber, especially
where the physical conditions render ground systems difiicult and
expensive. It is operated to best advantage when the topog-
raphy is such that logging railroads can be laid out at regular
intervals, but it is also employed in very rough regions where the
railroad must be placed in the valley or at the head of the slope.
This is the only system of power logging that is not very
POWER SKIDDING 203
destructive to seedling growth, although it damages standing
timber.
It is most extensively employed in the swamp forests of the
southern part of the United States. It is also used in the rough
parts of the Appalachians; a few machines have been used in
the spruce forests of the Northeast, the yellow pine region of
the South, and they are coming into use in the fir forests of the
Northwest.
The average daily capacity of a cableway skidder in cypress
is from 35,000 to 45,000 feet log scale.
The crew for operating a skidder with a slack pulling device
consists of 13 or 14 men, as follows:
I skidder leverman i head rigger
I fireman 2 rigging helpers
I tong hooker i tong unhooker
I or 2 helpers i run cutter
I signal man i loading leverman
I top loader i ground loader
If the machine is not supplied with a slack puller it is neces-
sary to provide two or three extra men to assist in pulling slack
and carrying the cable to the logs.
The cost of the fuel and labor for skidding and loading is from
85 cents to $1 per thousand feet.
A steel spar cableway skidder operating in a shortleaf pine
forest in Texas, where the stand averaged from 3000 to 5000 feet
per acre, logged 40,000 feet daily as a maximum. The average
was not more than from 25,000 to 30,000 feet. Owing to the
low stand per acre, the cost ranged from 90 cents to Si. 25 per
thousand feet.
The crew on this machine was as follows:
I foreman i leverman
I loader leverman i top loader
I ground loader i fireman
I tong unhooker i tong hooker
I rigging slinger 2 helpers
1 helper i run cutter
2 woodcutters and haulers i night watchman
One horse was used by the rigging crew for hauling out cable
and one team was employed by the wood haulers.
204 LOGGING
The timber on this operation was cut from 24 to 32 feet long
and was felled without regard to the skidding direction. The
head spar and tail trees averaged about 700 feet apart with a
maximum of 1,000 feet; the number of runs per set-up ranged
between 1 5 and 20, and the area logged from one set-up covered
approximately 30 acres. From three to five logs were brought in
at one time and were loaded on skeleton cars by a long swing-
ing, end-control loading boom as shown in Fig. 52.
During the last few years the cableway skidder has been in-
troduced with marked success on the Pacific Coast for handling
small and medium-sized timber.^ The machines are similar in
t>pe and operation to those used in the c}^ress region, although
they are heavier and have a high speed for the return of the
cables. They operate from a headspar tree and log an area of
about forty acres at one set-up with a maximum working radius
of from 900 to 1250 feet. The crew is as follows:
I skidding leverman i loading leverman
I fireman i woodcutter
I tong hooker 4 riggers
I helper 3 loaders
I signal man i tong unhooker
The logs are skidded directly to a logging spur where they are
loaded on cars by an auxiUary device similar to that described
on page 202.
The average daily output ranges between 50.000 and 80,000
feet, for logs running between 500 and 1000 feet each. The daily
wage cost per crew is about $48.
One manufacturer states that the cost of logs on the car is
about one-third less than for similar timber logged with yarding
engines. This is due to a reduction in the mileage of railroad
spurs required and to the elimination of sniping, barking and
road swamping.
THE SXAKIKG SYSTEM
This is a ground system in which the cables are taken to the
logs by animals.
The essential features are an upright boiler with two, three
^ The Timberman, Portland, Oregon, .\ugust, 191c, p. 36.
POWER SKIDDING
205
or four independent skidding drums mounted either on a heavy
frame and trucks or on a frame which is supported at the corners
on legs or "spuds." The first type is transported under its own
power by a chain drive, and the latter type during transit rests
on a fiat car which is drawn by a locomotive.
• The machine has a heavy pulling boom at one or both ends of
the frame, from the peak of which blocks are suspended through
which the skidding lines pass out. The pulling booms are guyed
on either side to give them rigidity.
Fig. 57.
A Portable Snaking Machine operating in a Te.xas Longleaf Pine
Forest.
Portable snaking machines are not equipped with a loading
device but are supplied with a cable by means of which logs
may be piled up along the track ready for a special loading
crew.
When the snaking machine is not transported on its own
trucks, it is equipped with a loading boom and the logs are
loaded on cars as they are skidded. The machine is raised off
the flat car by means of hydraulic jacks and then the corners are
blocked up. The log cars are run under the skidder when they
are brought to the woods and are pulled forward under the
loading boom by means of a "spotting" cable as required for
loading. The skidding cables are single lines which are carried
by a mule or horse to the log to which they are attached by a
2o6 LOGGING
pair of tongs or a choker and then drawTi in. The animal is
ridden back to the machine and after the cable is detached
from the log, returns the line for another log. Runs or trails
are not cut.
The railroads are laid out in parallel lines from 1200 to 1400
feet apart and the timber is logged halfway back from each side
of the track. The road is often placed on the higher ground
because a better drained track can be secured and the timber can
be pulled up hill as readily as down.
A common practice is to fell the timber in three strips begin-
ning on the back edge of the area and cutting a section from 200
to 300 feet wide. This is skidded before the timber on the next
strip is cut. The ground is thus kept free from debris and the
timber can be drawn in easier than where there is slash to inter-
fere. Trees are seldom felled with reference to the location of
the railroad track although skidding of long logs is simplified
if they are thrown away from the direction in which they are to
be pulled, because the top then offers the least interference.
The necessary swamping is generally done by the saw)'ers at the
time the timber is felled.
When sawyers are paid by the thousand feet the timber is
usually scaled at the stump.
A crew of seventeen men and nine animals, either horses or
mules, is usually employed.
I foreman 2 levermen
I fireman 2-4 tong unhookers
4 tong hookers 4 riders
I wood chopper i wood hauler
I night watchman
The foreman of the crew has general supervision of the opera-
tion and often acts as the leverman on the loading engine, when
the skidder is equipped with one. Each leverman operates
two drums on the skidder. The fireman performs the usual
duties. The tong unhookers are stationed at the machine and
detach the tongs or chokers from the logs as they are dragged in,
attach the cable to the single-tree for hauling back to the next
log; they also act as signalmen, transmitting orders from the
POWER SKIDDING 207
tong hookers at the stump to the levermen. The tong hookers
attach the tongs or chokers to the logs, swamp an occasional
limb when necessary, and control the speed of the log by signals
to the leverman. The riders, usually negro boys, ride or lead
the animals from the machine to the next log. The animals
drag the cable to the desired point and then are brought back to
the machine to repeat the process. The wood choppers and
haulers cut and supply fuel for the boiler. The night watchman
guards the machine at night, cleans up, and gets up steam in
the morning ready for the crew. The top loader chooses the
logs to be loaded and, standing on the car, directs their proper
placement on the load. The ground loader places the loading
tongs on the logs to be loaded, acting under the orders of the top
loader.
If the skidder is equipped with a loader boom and engine the
following extra men are required:
I loader leverman, usually the crew foreman
I top loader
I ground loader
This makes a total of nineteen men for a full crew. Under
favorable conditions the total cost of skidding and loading is
from 75 cents to $1 per thousand.
Eight animals are used, four being worked from one to two
and one-half hours and then allowed to rest while the others
are in use. The ninth animal is used to haul the wood cart
which transports fuel for the engine.
The daily capacity of each line is about 35,000 feet, with an
average of 125,000 feet for a 4-line machine, where logs up to
40 feet in length are handled.
Daily records of 4-line machines, bringing in whole trees, have
run as high as 295,000 feet. This amount, however, cannot
be approximated as an average even under favorable circum-
stances.
2o8 LOGGING
THE SLACK-ROPE SYSTEM
This was developed largely in the c\press swamps of the
South, where extensive areas of forest could not be logged with
animals, and where raihoad construction was not practicable.
It is also very extensively employed on the Pacific Coast and to
a limited extent in some other regions.
The system uses a hea\y pulling cable, and a Hghter one for
returning the main cable from the skidder to the point from
which the logs are to be dragged.
The power for the slack-rope system consists of an upright
engine and boiler, and two large drums driven by a pair of
powerful engines.
Pullhoats. — In the c^-press forests the slack-rope skidder is
mounted on a large scow, and the machine complete, consisting
of an upright boiler of from 60 to 80 horse-power with two engines
operating two main drums and usually a third small drum, is
called a pullboat. The large drums are placed tandem, one
ha\ing a capacity of from 3000 to 4000 feet of from |-inch to
i|-inch main cable, and the other at least twice as much f-inch
messenger cable. An equal amount of f-inch line is wound on
the small drum and is used to pull out the messenger cable when
runs are changed. Four rings are sphced at 50-foot intervals
to the main cable near the outer end and to these the chain and
cables holding the logs are coupled.
Pullboats are anchored in canals, bayous or lakes and the
roads radiate or "fantaii" in a half circle for a distance of from
3000 to 3500 feet, although some of the larger machines can be
operated for 4500 feet (Fig. 58). Distances in excess of 3500
feet usually are not regarded as desirable because breaks in the
cable are more or less frequent and on very long hauls the loss
of time in locating and repairing them is excessive.
The canals are dug by large dredges at a cost of from $3000
to $5000 per mile. They are from 40 to 50 feet wide, carry
about 6 feet of water and are often several miles in length.
Although at first intended solely for logging purposes, canals in
recent years have been built with the idea of ultimately using
POWER SKIDDING
209
them for drainage purposes. The early operators had difficulty
because they started to use the canals from the mill end, and so
much debris and mud were drawn into the water, that frequent
dredging was necessary to keep the channel open. The practice
now is to dig the canal and begin logging at the far end, working
toward the mill. Log barriers are now used, which prevent
most of the refuse from falling into the canals.
-3,980 '0
Fig. 58. — The Arrangement of the Roads down which Logs are pulled to the
Pullboat. This system is known as fantailing. The figure is adapted from an
actual operation in a Louisiana cypress swamp.
Pullboats operated from the shores of lakes or from wide
bayous are moored to nests of piling driven off-shore, and the
timber usually is pulled in straight lines.
In laying out a pullboat job it is necessary to locate and cut
out main and secondary roads down which the logs are dragged
to the canal or bayou. The foreman may locate the main and
secondary roads on a map in the office before going to the field,
and determine at just what points on the boundary roads will
terminate, and the angle at which they should run toward the
pullboat. The far end of the cable passes through a sheave
block fastened to a tail tree. These should not be more than 1 50
feet apart; for logs cannot readily be side-lined for more than 75
feet. After determining on the map the approximate location of
2IO
LOGGING
the tail trees the foreman starts at some know-n point along the
boundary, paces off 50 yards, selects the nearest suitable tail
tree, and blazes it so that it will not be cut by fallers. He thus
proceeds entirely around the tract. After the tail trees are
spotted, the route of the roads is blazed out from the boundary'
towards the pullboat. On the completion of the work the roads
will radiate out from the skidding center as shown in Fig. ^8.
Fig. 59. — The Sheave Block attached to the Tail Tree.
of supporting the block.
Note the method
The great advantage of this system over the "every road a
main road'' method is that it greatly reduces the mileage of
runs and is, therefore, much cheaper. The roads must be well
cleared out, otherwise the logs will catch on stumps and other
obstructions and cause numerous delays. They are usually cut
out by contract at approximately 70 cents per 100 feet of road,
with a further payment of 25 cents for every merchantable tree
POWER SKIDDING 211
felled and cut into logs. One man will cut from 60 to 500 feet
of road daily, depending on the number of trees to be cut, number
of stumps to be removed, and the amount of rubbish on the
ground. Workmen regard road building as one of the more
profitable forms of work in the cypress forest.
After the roads have been cut and the timber felled, the logs
are prepared for pulling by a "sniping" crew, which may work
by the day or by contract. The duty of this crew is to "snipe"
the forward ends of the logs, bore two opposite 2-inch holes about
one foot from the forward end of the log, and swamp out a trail
so that the log can be dragged to the main road. A four-man
crew will prepare from 75 to 100 logs daily and the contract price
paid is about 8 cents per tree or log.
A pullboat having moved to a skidding site, the main and
messenger cables are run out. A sheave block is adjusted at the
far end of the road and two |-inch cables are carried from the
pullboat to the sheave block; one end of the cable is passed
through it and the two sections are then joined together. At the
pullboat one end of the |-inch cable is attached to the messenger
cable and the other end is reeled in on the small drum. This
drags the messenger cable out over the road, through the sheave
block and back to the skidder. The small cable is then detached
and the end of the main cable fastened to the messenger. The
pullboat is now ready for operation. When one road has been
pulled, it is customary to change only the main cable, leaving
the messenger in the first run logged until the distance between
the sheave blocks becomes several hundred feet. It then does
not get in the way of logs coming down the main road, is less
subject to damage, and less time is required in changing runs.
In changing from one run to another, the sheave block is left at
the head of the first road and another is placed at the head of
the next road to be pulled. The |-inch cable is carried from the
pullboat out over the new road, through the sheave block and
then across to the first run where the main cable is detached from
the messenger cable, and the latter connected to the f-inch line.
The main cable is drawn to the machine and, by reeling in the
small cable, the messenger cable is pulled over into the new run
212 LOGGING
and along it to the puUboat. The messenger and main cables
are again coupled together and the equipment is ready to log the
new run. A piece of telephone wire strung along the outer edge
of the run is used as a whistle cord and signals are given to
the engineer by pulling on the wire. The sheave blocks are
usually placed by a special crew before the change is made and
the |-inch cable is run out by this crew unless the distance
is long, when the entire pullboat crew is required. Ten or
twelve men can string out 2600 feet of |-inch cable in about
three hours.
The logs are prepared for skidding by the insertion of plugs
or ''puppies" in the holes previously bored by the sniping crew.
Cylindrical plugs 2 inches in diameter and 12 inches long are
connected in pairs by two sections of ^-inch chain 24 inches long
fastened to a 6-inch ring. The plugs are driven into the log and
the ring on the plugs is fastened by a short chain to the main
cable. The log is now ready to be hauled out to the main road.
This requires some maneuvering if there are stumps, logs or
trees in the line of the log being hauled, for the timber must be
''side-lined" around them. When once the log is dragged into
the main run, it is left there until a tow of four logs is secured.
Each log is fastened by a short chain or cable to a ring on the
outer end of the main cable. The boss then gives the order to
go ahead, which the whistle boy transmits to the skidder and
the logs start down the road.
During the early periods of modern pullboating a device
called the Baptist cone was placed over the ends of logs to enable
them to slip over or under obstructions. These cones were made
of steel but were too heaw to handle, when made strong enough
to withstand the rough treatment and they were abandoned,
in favor of sniping. Tongs are not regarded with favor be-
cause they lose their grip as soon as the draft on the cable
is lessened. When a tow that is being dragged down a main
road is stopped, as it frequently must be, the tongs drop off and
a man must be sent to readjust them. For this reason, plugs
or puppies are preferred.
The crew of a pullboat is divided into two sections, one of
POWER SKIDDING 213
which attaches the logs to the main cable and the other operates
the machinery and rafts the logs.
The woods' crew of seven men consists chiefly of negroes as
follows :
I foreman 3 side-line men
I plug setter i whistle boy
I head hooker
The plug setter adjusts the plugs or puppies. The side-line
men carry the skidding lines from the main run to the logs and
connect them with the puppies. The head hooker's duty is to
attach the logs to the main cable by short chains. The whistle
boy transmits the orders of the boss to the engineer by means of
a code of whistle blasts.
The crew at the pullboat consists of five men, as follows:
I engineer i wood-passer
I fireman i deck man
I rafter
The engineer and the fireman perform the usual duties. The
deck man uncouples the logs as they are brought up to the pull-
boat, removes the plugs and chains, and poles the logs around to
the rafter at the rear. He also attaches the removed chains and
plugs to the main cable by which they are returned to the woods'
crew. The rafter makes the logs up into cigar-shaped raft units
about 125 feet long. The wood-passer supplies the pullboat
with fuel wood which has been previously cut and piled along
the banks of the bayou. A flat boat is used for this purpose.
About three cords daily are required for a single boiler.
An average day's work for a pullboat crew is from fifty to
seventy-five logs; the output is often less, however, because of
cable breakage.
Yarding Engines. — In the Pacific Coast forests the slack-rope
system is used on dry bottom. Two types of machines are
employed, namely, the yarding engine and the road engine.
The former is employed for skidding logs to a central point on a
railroad, or to a skid or pole road down which they are hauled by
the road engine. Yarding engines are built in various sizes, but
a common one of the more powerful type has a 60 by 120-inch
214 LOGGING
vertical boiler operated at from 165 to 200 pounds' steam pres-
sure, and a pair of 10 by 12-inch or 12 by 12-inch engines. The
yarder is equipped with two drums, one about 60 inches in diam-
eter with a capacity of approximately 1000 feet of from |-inch
to i|-inch steel cable, and a smaller drum from 36 to 40 inches
in diameter, carrying 2000 or more feet of |-inch steel cable.
The engines, boilers and drums are mounted on skids about 3
feet in diameter and from :2^^ to 40 feet long. The larger yarding
engines complete, including cables and other equipment delivered
on the operation, cost from $3500 to $4000.
The method of operation is dependent largely on the topog-
raphy of the region. The more common scheme is to build a
landing at a suitable spot along the railroad and to install the
varding engine at one end of it. When the area tributary to this
location is logged, the yarder is shifted to the opposite end of the
landing. The yarder is brought to the site on a flat car and
unloaded by means of cables and blocks, power being furnished
by the yarder itself. In some cases, a road engine is installed
at the landing from each end of which a skid road extends into
the timber for from 3000 to 4000 feet. Branch roads are built
from the main road and at the junction the yarding engines are
placed. Another method is to build spur logging roads instead
of skid roads and to use a geared locomotive to drag the logs over
the ties to the landing.
After the swamper has bucked up windfalls which would inter-
fere with dragging in the logs, and the yarding engine has been
placed in position at the landing, the hauling lines are placed.
The messenger cable is carried out to the end of a run,^ six or
eight runs ahead of the one in which yarding is to begin; it is
then carried to the end of the first run that is to be logged and
brought along it to the yarder and connected by means of a clevis
to an eye on the main cable. WTiere the messenger, cable turns
an angle it is held in position by a snatch block fastened by a
short piece of cable to trees or stumps. These blocks are made
so that they can be opened and the line removed without dis-
placing the block. The placing of the messenger cable several
1 Runs are usually about 50 feet apart.
POWER SKIDDING 21 5
runs distant obviates a frequent change of position and also keeps
it out of the way of the logs as they are being hauled in.
A cable or chain, called a "butt-line," "whip" or "butt-
chain," from 8 to 12 feet long with an eye-splice and ring on one
end, and a swivel and hook on the other is also fastened to the
clevis on the trip-Hne. This hook on the butt-line serves as a
point of attachment for the chokers, grabs or dogs which are
used to grip the logs.
Where there are heavy pulls, devices called "fair leaders"
which are built of several patterns, are employed to line the cable
evenly on the drum of the yarding engines. These are attached
to a framework placed just in front of the drums.
A crew of twenty-five or twenty-six men will yard daily about
60,000 feet directly to the railroad. The crew consists of the fol-
lowing men :
I side boss i knotter
4 fallers i signal man
5 buckers i head loader
1 hook tender i second loader
2 choker men i spool tender
I rigging slinger i j'arding engineer
I chaser i yarding fireman
I swamper i wood-buck
I sniper 1 block and stake maker
A side boss is not always employed, but when he is a member
of the crew he acts as foreman of the felling and yarding crews.
The hook tender is the boss of the yarding crew, and the amount
of work done depends largely on his ability. He plans the work,
shows the swamper where roads are to be cleared, designates the
logs that are to be skidded and the order in which they are to be
taken, and directs the rigging slingers in their work. The rigging
slinger is the hook tender's assistant, and his duty is to place
the "lead" and other blocks at the points directed by the hook
tender. The swamper works just ahead of the yarding crew,
cuts up rotten windfalls so that they can be gotten out of the
way, chops out the larger brush, cuts roots and improves the
runs so that logs can be brought out without being hung up.
The choker men place the chokers around the logs, snipe the
2l6 LOGGING
ends of the logs if necessary and attach the chokers to the butt-
line. The chaser follows the logs to the landing to see that they
are not hung up en route, and to signal to the engineer in case
there is need for stopping the engine. The knotter cuts limbs
and knots from the logs before they are yarded. The head
loader is boss of the loading crew and is assisted by the second
loader and also by the spool tender who operates the loading
drum on the yarding engine, or the separate engine when one is
provided for loading. The block and stake maker cuts and
shapes blocks to lit into the pockets on the log cars. The signal
man stands near the hook tender and by means of signals, usually
given by pulling on a wire attached to the whistle of the yarder,
transmits the orders of the hook tender to the engineer. The
wood-buck cuts fuel for the yarder from logs, tops or waste
material.
The first work of the yarding crew, when starting on a new
road, is to remove the material which is too large for the swamper
to handle. This is called "chunking." The work of yarding
logs begins when the road is cleared. The hook tender selects
the log he desires and the choker men proceed to adjust the
chokers, dogs or grabs to the log. A choker is a |-inch or i-inch
steel cable noose about 15 feet long, which is sHpped over the
forward end of the log. The free end has an eye-splice which
is caught into the hook on the end of the butt-line. It is the
most common form of attachment now used. Dogs are large
steel hooks from 10 to 14 inches long, fastened together by a
chain or cable 4 feet or 5 feet long. These are driven into the
log and attached to the hook on the butt-line. They are most
serviceable in small timber, but do not hold to the logs well on a
heavy pull. Grabs are used in pairs and are connected by two
links of a stout chain to a common ring. They are driven in
notches cut on the sides of the log, and are so constructed that
the harder the pull on them, the greater their tenacity.
When the logs are connected to the main cable by the butt-line
the hook tender signals the engineer to haul in on the cable and
the logs start down the road. Additional blocks and cables
are attached to the butt-line, in case it is necessary to side-line
POWER SKIDDING 21 7
the logs around stumps or other obstructions, or to pull them
backwards until they are clear. As the logs reach a snatch
block on the road, the engine is stopped, the block opened, and
the cable removed. The block is then placed around the cable
behind the point at which the logs are attached. The logs then
are dragged to the succeeding blocks, and the process repeated.
When they reach the main road they are disconnected from the
chokers, grabs, or dogs, by a coupling-up man belonging to the
road-engine crew and the main cable is again returned for more
logs.
A day's work for a yarding crew varies with the size of the
timber and the difficulties of logging, but averages from 40,000
to 60,000 feet.
Coal and wood have been the common fuel for donkeys until
recent years. Oil burners are now in extensive use and electric
drive is rapidly being developed, although it is still in the experi-
mental stage. The advantage of fuel oil is that forest-fire danger
is eliminated, and operators claim the efficiency of the yarding
engines is increased from 15 to 25 per cent with a considerable
reduction in logging expense. Records of tests with fuel oil
reported at the Fourth Annual Meeting of the Pacific Coast
Logging Congress^ showed that on the operations of one company
the saving in the use of oil as compared with wood was from
9 to 17 cents per thousand feet due to increased efficiency, sav-
ing of good timber formerly used for fuel, and a reduction in the
force required to operate the yarder.
The cables used for skidding are of plow steel, and their life
is dependent largely on the care they receive. When kept
properly oiled and operated under average conditions a main
cable will handle about 5,000,000 feet.
A modification of the standard yarding engine is one known
as the Duplex logging engine.- This consists of four drums,
mounted in pairs and tandem on a 9-inch shaft ; a single vertical
72-inch boiler and two 11- by 13-inch engines. It is in reality
two separate yarding engines under the control of one engineer.
^ The Timberman, Portland, Oregon, August, 191 2, p. 40.
^ See The Timberman, July, 191 1, p. 55.
2l8 LOGGING
This machine has been developed in the redwood region, and is
said to have the following advantages:
(i) It enables the simultaneous operation of two different
gulches by one machine which is run by a single engineer and a
fireman.
(2) On long hauls the time can be reduced by yarding logs
for a portion of the way with one set of cables, and then bringing
in the logs with the other set. The long distance line is returned
for another turn of logs while the second one is dragging the first
turn to the landing.
(3) One cable can be used to yard logs located at a sharp
angle from the main road. The logs are dropped at the blocks
on the main road and picked up with a minimum loss of time
by the second line.
So far as known this system is not in extensive use.
Road Engines. — Road engines are semi-permanent in char-
acter and are not subject to as much strain in movement as
yarding engines. They may be mounted on skids or on a heavy
frame of timbers, and are operated for distances not exceeding
i\ miles. They use cables of a size similar to those employed
on yarding engines.
Road engines may be used singly, in which case they are
located at the landing along a railroad, stream or at the mill; or
they may be used in batteries of two or three. The rear machine
hauls the logs up to the tail block of the succeeding road engine,
which in turn hauls them to the next one.
It is seldom economical to employ more than two or three
machines in a battery because of the great expense for cable
and labor in comparison with the output. Railroads are always
built up to the first road engine, if possible, because of the
reduced operating charges.
The general features of a road engine are similar to those of
a yarding engine except that the machinery is more powerful
and capable of operating for longer distances. The specifications
of one of the larger t}^es of road engines are a 72- by 132-inch
boiler; 13- by 14-inch cylinders; 165 or 180 pounds' working
pressure; and a capacity of 7500 feet of i|-inch cable.
POWER SKIDDING 219
The main cable is i inch or i| inches in diameter with a
f-inch messenger line. The cable is operated on the slack-rope
system with the road engine located at the landing and a heavy
tail-sheave at a point a short distance above the yarding engine.
The messenger line which is placed near the main road but
outside of it so that it will not interfere with the operation of
the main cable is hung in snatch blocks located at suitable points.
The main cable follows the road and is kept in place by blocks
or by rollers where turns are made. Several logs aggregating
from 6000 to 11,000 feet log scale are fastened one behind the
other by grabs, and form turns which are attached to the main
cable by a chain or short piece of cable which is coupled to the
grabs on the forward log. The turns are made up by a grab
setter. A chaser follows the logs to the landing, often riding in a
rigging sled hollowed out of a log, which is attached to the rear
log. The chaser can signal to the road engineer at any point
along the line by pulling on a wire stretched along the road which
is connected to a bell or to the whistle on the engine. On arrival
at the landing the chaser aids in placing the logs on the landing,
removes the grabs from the logs and returns with the grabs in
the rigging sled to the yarding engine.
A road engine requires a good road, because the route is used
for some time, and when the haul is long it is desirable to handle
maximum loads. The roads are constructed in two different
ways, one of which is known as the skid road,^ and the other as
the fore-and-aft or pole road.- Both forms may be used on
different stretches of the same road, because skids are preferable
for level or ascending grades, and pole roads for rapidly descend-
ing ones. The skid road requires a right-of-way from 12 to
14 feet wide, which is swamped out carefully and graded to avoid
abrupt changes. It is better to make cuts than fills, because a
more solid foundation is secured. Skids from 10 to 14 feet long
and from 15 to 24 inches in diameter are cut, and skidded along
the right-of-way by a yarding engine assigned to road work.
The skids are laid in transverse trenches 8 or 9 feet apart and
' See page 149.
- See page 233.
220 LOGGING
earth is tramped around them to make a solid bed. Where
there are sharp pitches and the logs are apt to dig into the ground
the skids are placed closer together. Saddles or hollows are adzed
out in the center in which the turn of logs is dragged. The skids
are elevated on the inner side of a curve to prevent the logs
turning too sharply. Some prefer to lay the skids fiat and secure
the necessary elevation by means of short sheer skids. The
advantage of this method is that a change in pitch at the turn
can be more readily accomplished than when the main skids
must be changed.
The road should be as straight as possible because curves
increase friction, reduce the hauling ability of the engine and
also cause greater wear on the cable. Where there are turns
in the road, either rollers are placed on stumps or posts, or
fenders are put alongside the road to prevent wear on the cable.
Rollers may also be employed on top of ridges to prevent wear
from downward pressure, and suspended rollers may be used to
hold the cable down at the foot of slopes.
On low ground skids are laid on stringers or cobwork into which
they are firmly notched and the skids are also braced by short
pieces of timber. Hemlock is frequently used for skid timbers
because of the low value of the stumpage. About 80,000 feet
of timber, exclusive of bridges, is required per mile of skid road
and the cost for labor ranges from $1000 to $1500 per mile.
Hauling by Locomotive. — On some operations the road engine
is replaced by a geared locomotive and the logs are dragged
between the rails from the yarding engine to the landing. As a
rule the logs are dragged directly over the ties, but on a road of
some permanency planking is nailed on the ties to protect them.
A plan sometimes followed is to have a spur track from one-
half to a mile long running out from each end of the landing, with
a donkey working at some point on each spur. The engine goes
out one spur and with a short cable couples to a turn of logs^
made up in advance, and drags them down to the landing. It
then goes out the other spur and brings in a turn from it, alter-
nating in this manner throughout the day. A water tank with
a i|-inch escape pipe is sometimes used to wet the track to
POWER SKIDDING 221
facilitate the passage of the logs. On a i-mile haul one engine
can handle daily the output from two yarding engines, or from
90,000 to 100,000 feet.
Dudleys. — On grades too steep for locomotives a special type
of locomotive known as a "Dudley" or "Dudler" (page 301) is
often used, either to drag the logs over the ties or to haul log
cars up or down steep grades.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER XIV
Berry, E. J.: Advantages Accruing to the Adoption of Electricity in Logging.
The Timberman, Portland, Oregon, August, 1912, pp. 32-33.
Cole, C. O.: Difi&culties Confronting Electric Log Haulage. The Timberman,
August, 1912, pp. 36-37.
HiNE, Thomas W.: Utility of the Duplex Logging Engine and the Duplex
System of Yarding. The Timberman, .Vugust, 1910, pp. 36-37.
Kalb, Henry A.: Utilization of Compressed Air for Snubbing Logs. The
Timberman, August, 191 2, p. 53.
Mereen, J. D.: Substitution of Electricity for Steam in Modern Logging
Operations. The Timberman, August, 191 2, pp. 29-30.
Thompson, Jas. R.: Use of Electricity on Logging Operations. The Timber-
man, August, 1910, p. 64L. •
WiLLi.\MS, Asa S.: Logging by Steam. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. VI, No. i,
PP- 1-33.
CHAPTER XV
AERIAL TRAMWAYS
Aerial tramways are used for carrying logs and other forest
products up or down steep slopes, where other forms of trans-
port are not feasible.
The most common type used in the United States has a sta-
tionary main cable which is stretched between the terminals of
the tramway and may consist of a single span or be supported at
frequent intervals on trestles. The trolleys carrying the loads
run on this cable.
On gravity trams the route need not run in a direct line
provided there are stations at each sharp angle where trolleys
can be switched from one cable to another. Where power
is used to move the loads the line must be straight, or else
separate power must be provided for each straight section
of cable. Vertical curves are permissible when sufficient mo-
mentum or power is available for carrying the loads over
depressions. The average grade for gravity tramways is from
25 to 30 degrees.
A single-wire tramway constructed in Tennessee to bring logs
from a plateau to a railroad in the valley had a f-inch main
cable with a distance between terminals of 3700 feet. The
grades conformed to the general slope of the land. The upper
end of the cable was fastened to a tree on the edge of the plateau
and ran in a straight line to a railroad located at the lower ter-
minal in the valley. The cable was supported at intervals of
from 150 to 250 feet on brackets of varying lengths which were
fastened to trees. The cable rested, without fastening, in a slot
in a casting bolted onto the end of the brackets, except in de-
pressions where one end of a piece of strap iron was riveted to
the outer side of the casting and the other end passed over the
cable and was nailed to the bracket.
AERIAL TRAMWAYS 223
A log was carried by a pair of trolleys, each having two sheave
pulleys which ran on the upper side of the cable. Two short
chains each having a ring on one end and a "grab" on the other
were used for attaching the logs to the trolleys.
Five sets of trolleys were joined together by a f-inch cable,
which was wound around a drum equipped with a friction brake.
This drum was placed at the head of the tramway and served
both to control the speed of the descending load and to return the
empty trolleys to the head of the tramway. Power for the
latter purpose was supphed by a 15-horse-power gasoline engine.
The logs were loaded on the tramway from a set of balanced
skids which were placed so that one end was directly under the
main cable. Horses brought the logs to the base of the skids
on which they were rolled. The grabs were then driven and
the skids elevated until the rings on the grabs could be fastened
in the hook on the trolleys.
The maximum capacity of the tramway was 6000 feet log
scale per turn, and approximately thirty minutes were consumed
in making one round-trip.
A similar tramway has been used in the Northwest for getting
logs upon plateaus from canyons. The cable is suspended
between two points and the loaded trolleys are hauled to the top
by a steam hoisting engine.
A special adaptation of a single-wire tramway^ has been used
on an operation in the Northwest for lowering logs on grades
up to 60 degrees. The main cable was i| inches in diameter
and 1500 feet long. It was attached at the head of the tramway
to a large tree at a height of 75 feet. The tree was braced
securely on three sid6s with guy wires. A 16-inch sheave.block
was spliced to the lower end of the main cable and through this
block a one-inch cable 150 feet long was passed. One end of the
latter was attached to a stump and the other to the drum of a
yarding engine, both stump and yarding engine being in front of
and equidistant from the sheave block. The main cable could
be Hfted several feet above ground by tightening the secondary
cable with a few turns on the drum. The logs were attached by
1 See The Timberman, Portland, Oregon, August, 1909, p. 24.
224
LOGGING
chokers to a traveling block that ran on the main cable. The
load descended by gravity, its speed being controlled by a f -inch
trip line which was wound on a drum on the engine and then ran
up the slope to the head of the tramway where it passed through
a pulley fastened to a tree. The line was then attached to the
rear of the traveHng block. The trip Hne was held in position
by several blocks placed at suitable intervals on the slope. This
line also served to return the block to the head of the tramway.
In case of a break in the machinery or of the load becoming
unmanageable the main cable could be dropped to the ground
and the load stopped.
Adapted from The Timberman.
Fig. 6o. — A Single-wire Tramway used in the Pacific Coast Forests. The details
of the trolley and the method of attaching logs to it are shown in the enlarged
cut.
A system of this character may be used for distances of 3000
feet when there are no pronounced elevations between the two
ends of the tram.
Logs containing from 5000 to 6000 feet, log scale, have been suc-
cessfully handled. The hourly capacity of this tramway was
12,000 feet, log scale, when the logs averaged from 300 to 500
feet, log scale. Three men were required to operate the tram,
A single-wire gravity tramway used in the West is described
in The Timberman, April, 191 2. A i|-inch main cable 2100
feet long is suspended between a tree on the upper slope and one
AERIAL TRAMWAYS
225
at the base of the grade, as shown in Fig. 61. Automatic trips
are placed on the main cable at the loading and unloading points.
The snubbing line which passes through a 2 -sheave trolley has a
ball near the free end which engages a catch in the trolley and
serves to hold the load in position, and to trip it at the lower end.
Power for returning the trolley to the head of the tram is fur-
nished by a drum on a yarding engine at the head of the slope.
A cable is fastened near the ends of a log that is to be transported.
A hook on the end of the snubbing Hne is then caught in a ring
midway between the ends of the cable and the log is hoisted into
the air. When the ball on the snubbing line strikes the catch
■ Adapted from The Timberman.
Fig. 61. — A Single-cable Aerial Tramway in use in the Pacific Coast
Forests.
in the trolley, the latter is freed from the stop at the head tree
and with its load passes down the main cable by gravity, the
speed being controlled by the yarding engine. On reaching the
lower end of the cable the trolley is automatically tripped and
the log lowered onto a skidway along a railroad. Poles 100 feet
long, 27 inches in diameter at the butt and i foot in diameter at
the top have been handled with ease. The average time re-
quired to traverse the distance from the head to the foot of the
tramway is one and one-quarter minutes.
Another t}-pe of single-cable tramway has recently been
patented. The chief features are a stationary track cable with
intermediate supports, a continuous traction cable, a secondary
2 26 LOGGING
track cable also with intermediate supports, an engine with
several drums for handling the cables and a series of trolleys
which run on the main cable carrying the logs. The trolleys are
returned to the head of the tramway on the secondary track
cable.
It is designed to bring logs from a yarding engine to a load-
ing device on a railroad at the lower terminus, as shown in
Fig. 62. The main railroad extends under the tramway for
a sufificient distance to receive the required number of empty
cars. The framework supports the engine (25) which drives
the drums (3), (4), (5) and (6). The end of the main track
cable (7) passes over a sheave (not shown) which has a constant
tension on it to prevent undue slack on the cable between inter-
mediate supports when logs are tra\'eling between them. The
secondary track cable (8) is used for the return of the trolleys
to the head of the tramway. The endless traction cable (9)
passes over the drum (6) and is shown (10) passing to the upper
end of the tramway where it is run through a sheave block and
returned, between the intermediate supports, to the drum (6).
The tramway is operated as follows: With log (11) in the
position shown, the operator releases the brake on drum (5)
which permits the cable (12) to run out allowing the main cable
to lower under its own weight, until it assumes the position
shown by the dotted line (13). The log then rests on the car
directly underneath it. The tongs (14) are then released from
the log and the grips removed from the main cable which is at
rest. The hooks (16) are then caught in the carriages (17) and
elevated by means of the cable (18) and drum (4) and placed on
the secondary cable (8). The grips are then connected with
the traction cable (9) which is set in motion by the drum (6) and
they are carried to the head of the tramway where they are again
transferred to the main cable (7) by a similar device, a winch on
the yarding engine being substituted for the drum (4). The
main cable is lowered for the attachment of the tongs to the logs
in the same manner as the cable is lowered for detaching the logs.
When the log has been attached, the main cable is elevated and
the grips attached to the traction cable (9). The drum (6) is
AERIAL TRAMWAYS
227
then revolved and the trolleys and log drawn to the lower end
of the tramway. When car (19) is loaded, drum (3) is revolved
and by means of cable (21) the train of cars is drawn to the left
until car (22) is under the unloading device. When all the
cars have been loaded they are pulled out by a locomotive and
empties substituted for them.
Fig. 62. — A Single-cable Tramway, a. Delivery station,
trolley, c. Profile of tramway line.
b. Details of
The details of the intermediate supports, trolleys and grips,
also the method of hanging the main and secondary cable are
shown in Fig. 62 a. The main cable is clamped securely to
the hanger and serves to hold the supports upright, permitting
228 LOGGING
them to sway slightly as the loads travel along the cable. The
supports are further braced by the cables (24).
The tramway is designed to carry a sufficient number of
trolleys to keep a constant line of logs traveling toward the
unloading end and empty trolleys traveHng towards the upper
end. The logs, however, should be spaced far enough apart so
that at no time will two of them be suspended between a given
set of intermediate supports.
A profile of the line of a tramway of this character is shown in
Fig. 62c.
The above system is designed for ready removal from one site
to another, the framework (2) being lowered on a fiat car for
transport. It is a modification of one kno\\Ti as the Bleichert^
which is extensively empIo}ed for transporting timber, ores and
other products in mountainous regions, in some cases for dis-
tances greater than 20 miles.
A second type, known as the endless cable tramway, has been
employed for the transportation of shingle bolts. A tram of this
character built in California had a |-inch main cable supported
at frequent intervals on 16-inch sheave wheels attached to cross-
arms fastened on heavy poles.
The cable was driven by a donkey engine geared to a 6-foot
vertical drum around which the cable was wound several times
and then passed out over the sheave blocks. About halfway
between the two extremities the tramway turned a right angle,
the cable passing around two loose drums at this point.
Shingle blocks were brought to temporar\- platforms by chutes
and were attached by hand to the grips which were fixed at
intervals along the cable. The bolts were tripped automatically
at the terminus.
One hundred grips were operated on the fine one-half of which
were traveling loaded and the remainder returning empty to
the loading point. The average output per hour for the tram-
way was thirty cords of bolts.
^ Adolf Bleichert & Co., Leipzig and Wein. For a description of their system
see Modeme Transportanlagen im Dienste der Holzgewinnung and Holzindustrie.
Centralblatt fiir das gesamte Forstwesen, October, 1912, pp. 451-460.
AERIAL TRAMWAYS 229
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER XV
Anonymous: Aerial Snubbing Device. The Timberman, Portland, Oregon,
April, 191 2, pp. 49 and 52.
Anonymous: A Newly Patented Aerial Logging Railway. Western Lumber-
man, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, December, 191 2, pp. 40-41.
FoRSTER, G. R. : Das forstliche Transportwesen, Wien, 1888, pp. 242-250.
Gayer, Karl: Forest Utilization. (Schlich's jNIanual of Forestry, 2nd. edit.,
pp. 346-352; translated from the German by W. R. Fisher.) Bradbury,
Agnew and Company Ltd., London, 1908.
Newby, F. E.: Handling Logs on Steep Ground with a Gravity Cable System.
The Timberman, August, 1910, pp. 31-32.
Steinbus, Ferdinand: Die Holzbringung im bayerischen Hochgebirge unter
den heutigen wirtschaftlichen Verhaltnissen, ^lunchen, 1897, pp. 31-39.
CHAPTER XVI
TIMBER SLIDES AND CHUTES
Slides are channels used chiefly for transporting logs, although
pulpwood, crossties, firewood, etc., may be handled in this
manner. There are two general txpes; namely, earth slides
and timber slides, both of which are often combined to form a
single slide.
They are in frequent use in Pennsylvania, the Appalachians,
Idaho, Montana, the Northwest and, to a limited extent, in
New England and New York.
Slides are built down the valleys of streams or down the slopes
of mountains but they can seldom be constructed profitably
across watersheds because the cost of spanning depressions is
too great. They vary in length from a few hundred feet to
several miles. They are chiefly employed in mountainous
regions, although they are occasionally built in a flat country
for transporting logs for short distances.
Earth Slides. — An earth or ground slide is used for short
distances on steep grades where the soil is free from rocks
and debris that would hinder the movement of logs. It is a
furrow which is made by dragging logs over the proposed
route. If the earth is easily stirred no previous preparation
may be necessary, otherwise the soil must be loosened in places
by a pick.
An improved form called the "trail slide, ".consists of a furrow
made in a manner similar to a ground slide, with the addition
of a continuous "fender" skid on the lower side of the trail.
These skids are from 12 to 18 inches in diameter and are
fastened together by a lap joint pierced with a 2-inch wooden
pin, or with a ^-inch iron spike. The joint may or may not be
supported on a cross-skid. Fender skids are kept in place by
heavy stakes driven into the ground on the outer side. Slides
230
TIMBER SLIDES AND CHUTES
231
of this character are desirable on side-hills, where there is a
tendency for the logs to leave an earth trail.
Timber Slides. — Timber slides consist of a trough or chute
made of round or sawed timbers supported on cross-skids placed
at frequent intervals. On low grades where logs will not run by
gravity it is necessary to clear out a right-of-way 8 or 10 feet
wide which serves both for the slide and as a pathway for the
animals which handle the tow of logs. Where the grade is
Fig. 63. — View down a Timber Slide. Idaho.
sufficient to cause the logs to run by gravity, a right-of-way 4
feet wide is ample.
A common form of round timber slide consists of two parallel
timbers supported on cross-skids placed from 8 to 15 feet apart.
The timbers are from 9 inches to 18 inches in diameter and from
20 feet to 60 feet long and are cut from trees having a minimum
taper. Either a log 6 inches or 8 inches in diameter with a
hewed face or a 4-inch by 8-inch plank is often placed between
the two slide timbers and fastened to the cross-skids. The poles
are placed from 4 inches to 6 inches apart at their nearest point
232
LOGGlN'G
on a two-pole slide and from 8 inches to 15 inches apart when
the third pole is used. The timbers are usually placed with
their butts up grade because they sliver less; some, however,
prefer them placed in the opposite manner. The timbers are
joined together by a simple lap joint, and are sunk into a skid
directlv beneath them and fastened to it bv i^-inch or 2-inch
hardwood treenails, or §-inch by 12-inch iron spikes.
to strengthen the slide the joints are always broken.
In order
Fig. 64. — The Terminus of a Log Slide. Idaho.
On level stretches a slide is built on the ground and requires
a minimum of bracing and support, while on steep pitches and
in crossing depressions it is supported on crib work and is
thoroughly braced because rigidity is important.
When the round logs are in place and securely fastened to the
cross-skids, men are set to work to hew the inner faces of the
sHde timbers. This is particular work because any irregularities
on the face of the sHde will cause logs to jump. The scoring line
is laid off with a chalk line and the timbers then scored with a
felling ax and fmall\- hewed smooth with a broadax.
TIMBER SLIDES AND CHUTES
233
A common method of dumping logs from a slide is to build
one side several inches lower than the other. Another method
used where there are several dumping grounds is to hew down
the side of the shde on the dump side and place a switch
called a " whippoorwill " diagonally across the shde timbers.
Fig. 65. — A Whippoorwill Switch used for throwing Logs from a Slide.
The lower part of the shde ends at a landing, where the grade
should be level or sHghtly ascending to check the speed of the
logs. When the log strikes the switch it is shunted off. When
it is desired to send logs past a given dump the upper end of the
switch is removed and placed across the depression on the slide
timber and fastened by two heavy treenails.
Fig. 66. — A Sawed Timber Slide, sometimes used where the Wear is Excessive.
The life of a pole slide is from six to ten years, when kept
in repair.
Slides which are near a sawTnill and subject to constant use
are preferably made from sawed timbers.
On the Pacific Coast slides called "fore-and-aft" roads or
''pole chutes" are used for trailing logs from yarding engines
234
LOGGING
to a landing, when power for moving the logs is provided by a
road engine.
A fore-and-aft road consists of a trough from two to five poles
wide, made from long straight timber with a minimum diameter of
lo inches. The ends of the poles are beveled, fitted together and
drift-bolted to skids placed transversely under them at inter-
vals of from lo to 15 feet, thus providing a stable foundation.
Fig. 67. — A Fore-and-aft or Pole Road used with a Road Engine.
Pacific Coast.
Side braces placed at intervals of 15 or 20 feet prevent the poles
from spreading. The slide follows the ground level except where
it crosses deep depressions or streams, when it is supported on
cribwork. The roads are built as straight as possible to decrease
the loss of engine power through friction.
A fore-and-aft road requires from 90,000 to 120,000 feet of
timber per mile according to the amount of cribbing neces-
sary.
TIMBER SLIDES AND CHUTES
235
Chutes are also employed on the Pacific Coast as the terminus
of a skid or pole road, where the logs are dumped into a stream,
pond or other body of water. These chutes consist of three
Fig. 68. — A Timber Chute. New Hampshire.
different parts; namely, the head which is cross-skidded like a
skid road, the "slip" or chute proper and the "apron" or
terminus. The cross-skids at the head offer less friction than
a pole chute and enable the logs to be started readily. The poles
in the chute proper are drift-bolted to heavy cross-stringers set
236 LOGGING
at lo-foot intervals on the upper part, and closer together near
the base where the strain is greatest. Side poles serve as fenders
to keep the logs in the chute. The apron extends out over the
water in order to prevent the logs from striking bottom and is
nearly parallel to the surface. The change in gradient from the
slip to the apron must be gradual or the impact of the logs
against the latter will soon destroy it. Chutes are used only
when no other means of transport is feasible; for even under the
most favorable operating conditions many logs are broken or
damaged.
In , the Northeast chutes similar to the one shown in Fig. 68
are occasionally built for bringing logs down steep slopes.
Another form of rough chute used in the same region is built
as follows: A strip 5 or 6 feet wide is cleared dowTi the slope.
Logs are then snaked to a skidway at the head of the cleared
strip, ready to be sent dowm by gra\'ity. The first logs that go
down are used to form a crude trough of parallel logs down which
the bulk of the timber passes. Chutes of this character work
best after a heavy frost or light snowfall.
In parts of the Appalachian region the logs are frequently
brought down the beds of the mountain streams. Where the
grades are steep and the bottom is smooth, Httle preparation is
needed, but where the bed is rough, poles are laid lengthwise in
the stream. The logs are started at the head of a cove and pass
down the slide with great rapidity, collecting in a rough-and-
tumble skidway at its base. Although timber is often damaged
by breakage this is offset by the cheapness of transportation.
GRADES
The grade is an important feature of all slides. On traiHng
slides the grades are so low that logs will not run by gravity,
and animal or other power is required to keep them in motion.
Running sHdes have a grade sufficient in height to permit the
transport of logs by gravity.
SUdes vary in gradient at different points along the line and
in some parts may be trailing shdes and in other sections running
TIMBER SLIDES AND CHUTES
237
slides. The grade necessary to make logs run by gravity depends
on the character and condition of the slide, the kind and size of
the timber and whether the slide is used dry, greased or iced.
The greater the weight of the log the faster its speed, hence
large or long logs will run on lower grades than small or short
ones. Heavy hardwood logs will run on lower grades than
most soft-woods, and peeled logs will run on lower grades than
if unpeeled.
Earth sHdes with a 25 per cent grade may be used during the
summer but if the grade is as low as 10 per cent they are used
to best advantage during cold weather when they can be iced.
During the warm season, horses are often used to drag logs
in earth slides. Several logs are fastened together by grabs into
a "turn" and a team is attached to the forward log. In cold
weather animals can be wholly or partially dispensed with.
Iced timber slides are most efficient and therefore may be
used on the lowest grades; those lubricated with skid grease
rank next, while dry timber sHdes are the least efficient.
The following table of grades for running timber slides is from
European practice:^
Material transported.
Per cent of grade. ,
Dry slide.
Ice slide.
Firewood
Crossties
20-35
30
15-20
6-12
3-'6
Logs
Grades of 25 per cent are considered best for dry running
timber slides in which large logs are to be handled, although 45
per cent may be used on short stretches if the slide is built
strong and rigid. The minimum grade should not be less than
10 per cent.
Timber slides with maximum grades of 80 per cent and an
average grade of 60 per cent have been operated, but are not
desirable because of the heavy loss through breakage.
1 From Forest Utilization, by Karl Gayer. (\"ol. V, " Schlich's Manual of
Forestry," p. 325.)
238
LOGGING
CURVES
Curves on slides must be laid out with reference to the length
of material to be handled. Sharp curves are always undesirable
and especially so on steep pitches because the wear is excessive
and logs are likely to jump out of the shde.
It is necessary on 2-pole and 3-pole slides to elevate the outer
shde timber, the amount of elevation depending on the degree
of curvature, the grade and the character of material that is
being transported. A radius less than 200 feet is not desirable
for any form of slide.
Fig. 69. — A Turn of Logs ready to move along a Trailing Slide.
OPEIL\TION
Running shdes are more expensive to operate than traiHng
sKdes because of the greater construction and maintenance ex-
pense, and the added cost of returning to the sHde the logs
which have jumped out of it.
TIMBER SLIDES AND CHUTES 239
Logs are usually rolled directly into slides either from large
skidways on which many logs are stored when extensive runs are
made, or from small skidways where the logs are sent down as they
are yarded. In some cases skidways are dispensed with, the
timbers being spread apart at the head of the sUde and the logs
dragged directly into it.
On running slides logs are sent down singly. Where a part
or all of the slide is a traihng one from ten to forty logs are
made up into a turn, but if there is a possibility of the logs
running even for a short distance they are not fastened together.
In making up a turn on a trailing slide a log is rolled from the
skidway into the shde, and is then hauled down a log length by
a tow horse or team, so that the next log may be rolled in. Both
are then moved ahead for another log length by attaching the
tow Hne to the rear of the last log. The process is repeated until
a turn is made up, when a team is attached to the rear end of the
last log by a chain or rope from
30 feet to 50 feet long, to which
is fastened an "L" hook, swamp
hook, grab hook or ''jay grab."
The tow is then started for the
landing. If the logs start to
run in the slide the teamster can Fig. 70. — An "L" Hook used for
readily detach the hook and free Attaching the Tow Line to the Turn
the team which otherwise might ° °^^'
be dragged down. The team drags the turn of logs to the land-
ing, or until the grade becomes sufficient for the logs to run,
whereupon the tow is started down the shde and the team
returns to the head for more logs. The tow is picked up by
another team on the first "dead" stretch and dragged to the
next running portion of the slide.
To reduce friction during the summer season the slow stretches
of a slide are watered, or are greased with a cheap form of skid
grease or crude petroleum. During the cold season such stretches
are iced by throwing water on them at night. If the stretch is
short and the water is close at hand it may be poured on with
a bucket, otherwise a barrel is used in which two holes are
240
LOGGING
bored in one end, one over each slide stick. The barrel is then
filled with water and lowered down the sHde during the night.
On steep slopes where logs run fast and are apt to leave the
slide, several devices are used to check the speed. A common
method is by the use of a "goose-neck" or "scotch" made from
i^-inch or 2-inch round or square iron fashioned as shown in
Fig. 71, a and b. They are placed in holes bored through the
slide timbers and as the logs pass over them, the prongs bite into
the wood and retard the progress. Logs will leave the shde unless
the goose-necks are placed opposite each other. The holes in
which the goose-necks are fitted are bored entirely through the
TrT^lJr^
Fig. 71. — Goose-necks used for checking the Speed of Logs on Heavy Grades.
a and /) show two Common Forms, c shows the Manner of placing them in
the Shde Timbers.
shde timbers so that dirt cannot accumulate in them. When not
in use the goose-necks may be removed or dropped into notches
cut into the shde timbers for that purpose.
Another form of brake consists of a log one end of which is
pivoted to a framework erected above the shde. The free end is
armed with spikes that drag on the logs as they pass under them.
Several slide tenders are required to keep shdes greased and
watered, adjust goose-necks and make repairs. As a general
rule, several kinds and sizes of logs are run indiscriminately
during the day, and it is necessary to use goose-necks on large
logs and to remove them for the slower running small logs.
Where logs have jumped out, laborers are required to return
TIMBER SLIDES AND CHUTES 241
them to the sHde. This is done by building an improvised chute
from the ground to the sHde, and dragging the logs up with a
team and tow Hne, or by rolHng the logs up by hand on spiked
skids. This work is done after the season's sliding has been
completed.
COST
Slides vary greatly in cost depending on their character, the
amount of cribbing required, the number of curves, the season
of the year in which they are built and the efficiency of the labor.
Running slides are the most expensive form to construct,
because they must be built stronger and more rigid than other
forms. Curves require about one-third more labor to build than
do straight stretches. Slides constructed during the winter cost
about 25 per cent more to build than during warm weather and
are often troublesome in the spring when the frost leaves the
ground.
The cost per rod is approximately as follows: Earth sHdes,
from 20 to 50 cents; 2-pole to 3-pole slides, from $3 to $5;
plank slides, from $1.50 to $2; chutes on the Pacific Coast,
from $8 to $10.
The cost per mile of operating a slide ranges from 50 cents to
$1 per thousand feet log scale.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER XVI
Von Almburg, Dr. F. Augenholzer: Beitrag zur Kenntnis der dynamischen
Vorgange beim Abriesen des Holzes in Holzriesen. Centralblatt fur das
gesamte Forstwesen, April, 191 1, pp. 161-179.
FoRSTER, G. R.: Das Forstliche Transportwesen. pp. 45-68. Moritz Perles.
Wien, 1888.
Gayer, Karl: Forest Utilization. (Schlich's "Manual of Forestry," Vol. V, pp.
316-322; translated by W. R. Fisher.) Bradbury, Agnew and Company,
Ltd., London, 1908.
CHAPTER XVII
FOREST RAILROADS
POLE ROADS
Pole roads were formerly used by lumbermen because the
material for construction could be secured on the operation at
no expense except for labor and stumpage but they are primitive
in character and are now seldom used except on an occasional
small operation where sawed wooden rails or steel rails cannot
be secured at reasonable cost. Animals are used as draft power,
although on down grades the cars may descend by gravity under
control of a brakeman. Pole roads are seldom built for dis-
tances greater than from 2 to 2^ miles.
A 25-foot right-of-way is required from which all brush must
be removed and stumps grubbed out or cut level with the ground.
The grade is then established. Turnouts for returning teams
are provided at intervals of from | to ^ of a mile. On a track
of this character, ascending grades greatly decrease the hauling
ability of animals. The maximum grade for loaded cars hauled
by two animals is 1.5 per cent. Where eight horses are used
trams with 1 5 per cent ascending grades on the route to the woods
and 3 per cent ascending grades for loaded cars en route to the
mill have been used successfully.
The roads have a gauge of 5 or 6 feet, and the rails are long,
straight poles from 9 to 12 inches in diameter, with as little
taper as can be secured. The poles are hewed on the inner face
to reduce friction on the wheel flange. They are laid with the
butts all in one direction, the top of one pole being lap-jointed
to the butt of the following one. Where the poles are not of the
same size at the joint they are hewed down until the car w^heels
can pass over them readily.
On a hard bottom the poles are laid directly on the ground
and are ballasted to make an even track. They are braced
242
FOREST RAILROADS
243
at frequent intervals by stakes driven close to them on the out-
side. At curves where the track is liable to spread, braces are
placed between the rails and also between the outer rail and trees
or stumps. Cross-skids are used only on soft ground and are
spaced from 6 to 8 feet apart. They are short round blocks
placed under the rails but they do not extend across the track as
Photograph hy H. R. McMillan.
Fig. 72. — View down a Pole Tram-Road in Idaho.
they would interfere with the foothold of the draft animals.
Poles are held together at the lap-joints and fastened to the cross-
skids by means of wooden treenails from i^ to 2 inches in diam-
eter, which are driven through the pole and skid into the ground.
A crew for building a pole road comprises six men and one
team. Where the rails can be obtained along the right-of-way
a crew will cut and peel the necessary poles and build 500 feet of
244
LOGGING
straight track daily. Curves require about one-third more labor
than straight track. In Idaho the cost of the construction of
9 miles of pole road on rolling ground was $500 per mile, while
on the Pacific Coast the cost has run as high as $1000 per mile.
The maintenance of a pole road is low. The chief item aside
from the occasional replacement of a pole, consists in removing
splinters from the rails, usually with a spade, and also greasing
Photograph by H. R. McMillan.
Fig. 73. — The Type of Car used on a Pole Road in Idaho.
the rails with skid grease. One man can care for two miles of
track on half time.
The cars are built with a heaxy framework of sawed timbers
mounted on four wheels, each of which is about 42 inches in
diameter with a slightly concave face, a 4-inch flange on the inner
side and a 2-inch flange on the outer. Each wheel turns on a
2-inch fixed axle provided with a side play of 6 inches so that the
wheels can adjust themselves to the inequalities of the rail and
the uneven gauge.
FOREST RAILROADS 245
The bunks are 10 feet long and from 10 to 12 feet apart. A
reach which passes through the body of the car and projects 2I
feet beyond the bunks serves as a point of attachment for the
draft power.
Cars of this character drawn by two horses will carry 1400 feet
log scale per load. A team will haul loaded cars from 8 to 10
miles daily.
On an Idaho pole tram if miles in length, two horses hauled
from 7500 to 9000 feet log scale daily, each car load containing
approximately 1600 feet. The cost of transport was about 85
cents per thousand feet.
On the Pacific Coast a team of eight horses hauled 20,000
feet daily on a i§-mile tram road, each car averaging 5000 feet.
Two horses are commonly used although on the Pacific Coast
as many as eight are employed on some of the roads.
Light geared locomotives have been used to a limited extent
but they are not adapted to this type of rail.
STRINGER ROADS
The stringer road soon superseded the pole road on operations
where a sawmill was available for sawing rails.
The early stringer roads were operated by animal power; but
light geared locomotives are now used almost exclusively except
for stocking small mills.
Stringer roads have a greater capacity than pole roads and
may be used to stock a single-band mill. They are employed
chiefly on operations where suitable hardwoods are abundant for
rails, where the operation is remote and the cost of transporting
steel rails is excessive, where the length of haul is comparatively
short and where the daily output is limited. Such conditions
exist in the hardwood region of the Appalachians where this tj'pe
of road is common.
The disadvantages of a stringer road as compared with steel
railroads are that the rails become soft and wear out rapidly in
rainy and wet weather; wheel flanges climb wooden rails more
readily than steel; the cost of repairs and material for a year's
246
LOGGING
operation will largely meet the first cost of steel rails; and the
road is about 75 per cent less efficient.
The right-of-way for a stringer road must be carefully graded,
and crib bridges or trestles built where necessary. The grades
should not exceed 3 per cent on the main line and 8 per cent
on spurs. The preparation of the roadbed is as expensive as
for a narrow-gauge steel road, the only saving effected being
the original cost of rails.
Fig. 74. — A Stringer Road in the Appalachian JMountains.
A stringer road 3 or 4 miles in length is limited in capacity to
40,000 or 50,000 feet of logs per day.
The rails are 6 by 6 inches in size and are composed of two
sawed pieces, each 3 by 6 inches, placed one on top of the other.
The rails are fastened to the crossties and to each other by wire
spikes. The top rail must be of some wood that will not splinter
readily, such as beech and hard maple. Sometimes the rail is
also covered with strap iron to prevent wear. The lower rail
may be made of an inferior grade of timber such as wormy
oak.
FOREST RAILROADS 247
The rails are spiked to round cross ties from 8 to 12 inches in
diameter and 7 feet long, which are cut along the track and are
spaced from 18 to 24 inches apart on main lines, and from 24 to
30 inches on spurs. The gauge is 3I or 4 feet.
The cost of maintenance of a stringer road in constant use is
heavy because the rails sliver badly and break, requiring such
frequent repairs after the first six months that the road will be
practically rebuilt in two years.
The cost of constructing stringer roads, exclusive of the value
of the timber used, ranges between $800 and $1200 per mile,
but if many bridges are required the cost exceeds this.
Geared locomotives are used, the weights varying from twenty-
five to thirty tons on main lines and from fifteen to seventeen
tons on spurs. Larger ones are too heavy for a wooden track.
A light-weight, 2-truck, 8-wheel skeleton car is preferred for
these roads. The wheels are 20 or 24 inches in diameter with a
6-inch tread which helps to keep them on the tracks where the
gauge is too wide. Cars of this character, built for handling logs
up to 20 feet in length, are from 22 to 24 feet long with bunks
7^ or 8 feet wide, and are equipped with hand brakes. Each
car weighs about two tons, has a rated capacity of from 15,000
to 20,000 pounds weight and usually carries from 1000 to 1200
feet of logs.
STEEL-RAIL ROADS
The successful use of steel-rail logging roads began in 1876,
when Scott Gerrish, a logger in southern Michigan, built a
railroad for transporting logs from Lake George to the Muskegon
River down which they were driven to the mill. The number
of logging railroads increased rapidly and in 1881 there were
seventy-one in operation in Michigan and five in Wisconsin.
In 1 910 there were approximately 2000 logging railroads^ with
about 30,000 miles of track in operation in the United States.
Rail transport is gaining in favor in all sections of the country
and with high stumpage values will become the preferred form
of transport except where conditions are especially favorable for
^ See The American Lumberman, Chicago, lUinois, March 19, 1910, p. 34.
248 LOGGING
floating and rafting. The only region in which their use is not
extensive is in the New England States where water transporta-
tion has been the custom for years, due chiefly to the fact that
many of the merchantable species will float, that the region is
traversed by numerous streams and that trunk lines do not
penetrate the forest regions to any extent.
Advantages of Railroad Transportation
(i) Accessibility. Railroads have made large areas of timber
accessible which otherwise could not be logged because of the
lack of streams for floating logs, or the absence of suitable manu-
facturing sites and shipping facilities on the natural water
outlets.
(2) Independence of climatic conditions. Rail transport ren-
ders a, logger practically free from climatic influences since he
is not dependent on a snowfall to furnish a bottom for hauling,
or on flood waters to float his logs. This enables him to operate
throughout the year, with possible short interruptions due to
heavy rainfall or snowfall.
(3) Market conditions. The use of railroad transport does
not force the manufacturer to anticipate market conditions
months in advance, because logs can be cut and hauled to the mill
on short notice and special requirements for long timbers or for
a heavy cut can be readily met. The plant can be closed during
dull market periods without carrying on hand a large quantity of
logs in the forest, subject to damage from fire, insects, and sap-
stain. The operator can turn over his money at frequent
intervals and need not invest a large sum in advance in logging
expenses.
(4) Utilization of hardwoods. The logger is able to bring
out all species. This reduces logging expense, because of the
heavier stand per acre secured.
(5) No loss of logs in transport.
(6) Clean logs. Rail transport lands the logs at their desti-
nation free from gravel, sand, iron and other foreign matter. A
hardwood manufacturer operating on one of the large rivers esti-
mates that clean logs can be manufactured 1 5 cents per thousand
FOREST RAILROADS 249
cheaper because of the saving in saws, saw-filing expense and
lost time on the part of sawmill labor. This saving is very
a.ppreciable in large plants. The value of some hardwoods, such
as basswood for cooperage stock and birch for spool stock, is
strongly influenced by the brightness of the wood, and even
though such species can be floated their value is often reduced
by exposure to weather and water.
Railroads for logging purposes can usually be constructed
much cheaper than trunk roads because higher grades and
sharper curves may be used and also because the roadbed need
not always be placed in first-class condition to do satisfactory
work. In a rough region, however, the initial expense is great
and the cost may be prohibitive if many miles of road must be
constructed to reach a tract. Under normal circumstances,
railroads are chiefly adapted to large operations since the con-
struction charge must be distributed over a large tonnage if
the cost per thousand feet of timber handled is to be kept
within reasonable limits.
CHOICE OF GAUGE
The choice of a narrow- or standard-gauge road for logging
operations will be governed by the size of the operation, the
topography, and the amount of capital available for investment.
The final choice, however, should be governed not only by the
initial cost of construction and equipment, but also by the cost
of operation, because the increased construction cost of a stand-
ard-gauge may be more than compensated by a reduced operating
charge
Narrow-gauge roads can be constructed cheaper than standard-
gauge because (i) the width of cuts and fills is less; (2) sharper
curves^ are permissible because of the shorter wheel-base of
locomotives and cars; (3) the cost of track laying is less per mile
owing to the use of lighter rails and ties; (4) the initial expense
for rolling stock and motive power is not so great.
^ Curves as high as 50 degrees have been negotiated by narrow-gauge geared
locomotives but a lower degree is desirable for efficient work.
250 LOGGIXG
There is little difference in the cost of trestles and other timber
work for narrow- and standard -gauge roads. A narrow-gauge
road is desirable for a limited output in a rough region because
the cost may be one- third less than that of a standard-gauge.
It therefore appeals to loggers with limited funds. It is also
desirable in light or scattering stands where the track must be
moved frequently. On soft bottom the track is easier to keep
in operating condition owing to the lighter equipment used and
the smaller loads hauled.
Where a large tonnage is handled, standard-gauge roads are
more economical to operate because larger locomotives and cars
can be used and the cost of operation per thousand feet for wages,
fuel, oil and repairs for the heavier locomotives and cars will be
less because of increased hauling capacity.
Standard-gauge is also desirable because trunk-line cars may
be operated over the logging road. This is a great advantage
where logs, pulpwood, tanbark and other forest products are
to be shipped to outside points, since cars can be loaded in the
forest and hauled to destination without reloading.
RIGHTS-OF-WAY
The right of loggers to build railroads across the lands of others
is not recognized by the courts except where the roads have been
chartered by the State. In the latter case the right of Eminent
Domain is granted, and a line can be forced across foreign
holdings by condemnation proceedings and the pa}Tnent of just
compensation to the owner.
Many logging roads are not incorporated because the route
frequently does not tap a section in which any tonnage, other
than that of the owners, will originate. Further the incorpora-
tion of the road subjects it to regulations governing the hours of
labor for train crews, use of air brakes, height of draw bars on
the equipment, filing of tarift"s. and the submission of reports
to the State Railroad Commission.
Chartered roads must be prepared to handle freight and
passenger traffic, and many logging companies do not feel justi-
fied in maintaining the necessary equipment for this purpose^
FOREST RAILROADS 251
especially since the handling of outside traffic at times interferes
with the operation of logging trains.
Where the owner of a non-chartered road desires a right-of-
way across the property of another the land may be bought at
private sale, although this course is seldom desirable unless the
road is ultimately to become a "common carrier," inasmuch as a
narrow strip of property is of little value to the owner and is
difficult to sell at the conclusion of logging operations. The
more frequent practice is to lease^ land for right-of-way for a
period sufficient to permit the removal of timber. Such leases
can usually be secured on terms satisfactory to all parties,
although exorbitant rental is sometimes demanded, where the
topography compels the location of the road within restricted
limits, such as in a narrow valley.
Where timber rights are purchased without the fee to the land,
the contract of sale should specify that the purchaser has the
right to construct such roads as are necessary to secure the
timber. Even if such a stipulation is not made, some courts-
have ruled that a sale, or grant of standing trees implies a right
of access and the use of the land for the purpose of cutting the
timber and afterwards removing the logs. Unless some specific
date is mentioned on which these rights terminate, the buyer is
entitled to a "reasonable time" for removal. In case of' litiga-
tion the length of time covered by the contract is decided by the
courts after consideration of the specific case.
LOCATION
The location of the main line of a logging railroad is of great
importance, for the engineer must preserve a proper balance
between the cost of construction and the maintenance and
operating charges. He must choose between an expensive road-
bed with low grades and easy curves, or a cheaper roadbed with
increased maintenance and operating expenses.
1 In many places in the South S50 is considered a reasonable fee for the privilege
of crossing a "forty."
2 See a decision of the Supreme Court of Tennessee. Carson vs. Three State?
Lumber Company (Tenn.), 69 Southwestern Reporter, 320. 1902.
252
LOGGING
(i) Roads in a rolling or rough region should enter the tract
at the lowest point and follow natural drainage, because it
usually affords the best grade out of the region and the operator
can bring his timber to the main line on a dowTi grade. Road-
beds along natural drainage shouid be placed above high-water
mark when possible, although on roads which are to be used only
for a short period, it may be cheaper to build near the stream and
suffer a few washouts rather than incur a very hea\y construc-
tion expense.
(2) The shortest possible route is usually desirable, but it is
better to increase the length of line if heav>^ cuts, fills, bridge
and trestle construction can be avoided.
(3) "Velocity" grades are often used to advantage in crossing
"draws" or depressions but they are feasible only on straight
track, for it is extremely dangerous to run trains at high speed
on a curved track which has a descending grade. In addition
to their influence on the hauling ability of a locomotive, steep
pitches are a disadvantage on a road because the track tends
to work towards the lower levels and not only is the expense of
maintenance greater than for a fairly level road but also the
danger of wrecks is increased.
(4) Where logging railroads cross ridges or cover sharp
changes in grade in a short distance, "switch backs" are usually
preferable to doubling back with a curve since the latter method
often necessitates a heavier construction expense. Switch backs
often are the only means at hand for securing timber from eleva-
tions above or below the main line.
(5) Grades should not exceed 3 per cent and curves should
not exceed 12 degrees on roads that are to be used for several
years and over which a large amount of timber is to be hauled,
although in a rough region these figures are often increased in
practice.
Location in a region without marked topographical relief, such
as the fiat pineries or the c}press sw^amps of the South, presents
no special difficulties. The main object is to bring the railroad
to the timber by the shortest and cheapest route. The con-
struction cost is low on dry lands in these regions, because only
FOREST RAILROADS 253
limited quantities of material, chiefly earth, must be moved to
make the roadbed. Where swamps are crossed piling is fre-
quently used and numerous bridges or trestles may be required,
but even here the cost per mile is less than the average in a
mountainous region.
In the flat and gently rolling regions of the South the main
lines are usually located by the woods foreman, although in
many cases, engineers could be employed to advantage.
In a rolling or rough country, especially, in the West, location
presents difficult problems, because roads must be confined
chiefly to natural drainage and often the only means of access
to timber is over a route requiring heavy cuts and fills and
expensive bridge and trestle construction. The location of
logging railroads in a rough region should be done by a location
engineer who is an expert logger. Good railroad engineers
without logging experience, are usually a failure at logging rail-
road work because they are not able to subordinate some of their
ideals regarding standard railroad construction to the demands
of practical logging.
Some companies have sufficient work to furnish continuous
employment for logging engineers while others secure their
services only when needed. Competent men for work of this
character can be secured for from $175 to $250 per month.
Spur lines are located with less care than the main hnes for
they are shorter and of cheaper construction, since they are to
be used only for a short period and a limited amount of timber
is to come out over them. They should follow natural drainage
in order to provide a do\\Ti-haul for animal logging, but if power
skidders are employed the roads may be placed on high ground
and the logs dragged up grade, as it is often cheaper to construct
and maintain a road on the higher ground, the skidding machine
will bring logs up grade as easily as down, and the logs do not
acquire momentum and foul the cable, or catch so readily behind
stumps or debris.
In fairly level regions, where animals are used for logging,
spurs are preferably located so that the maximum haul from any
part of the operation will not exceed one-fourth mile, except for
254 LOGGING
small isolated tracts, which do not warrant the expense of
building a railroad to them. Where a snaking system is used
and the aim is to log all parts of the tract by this system, spurs
should be placed approximately parallel to each other and 1800
or 2000 feet apart, for the maximum efficient radius of the ma-
chine does not exceed 1000 feet. In cypress and other forests
where the area is logged by the cableway system, the spurs are
placed parallel and from 1200 to 1400 feet apart. In mountain-
ous sections, spur roads chiefly follow secondary drainage.
On the Pacific Coast some operators build their spur roads to
the yarding engines. A geared locomotive then drags the logs
over the ties to the landing or the logs may be loaded on cars at
the yarding engine and transported to destination. Where spur
construction is costly the logs may be brought to the main line
by road engines, animals, slides or flumes. In the Appalachian
region spur construction is limited, and railroads are confined to
the larger branches of the streams.
The grades and curves permissible on spurs are greater than
on main lines because a slow speed is maintained, and lighter
moti\'e power is used. For the sake of efficiency and safety it
is always desirable to keep grades and curves as low as possible,
although short spurs may have grades as high as 6 per cent for
loaded cars, and from 8 to 10 per cent for empty ones, and curves
as high as 40 degrees.
Geared locomotives, only, are suitable for excessive grades and
curves since the short wheel base permits the locomotive to
make sharp turns, and because of the increased power secured
through the gearing; on steep grades and sharp curves however,
a geared locomotive can haul only a few cars at one time.
Methods of Location. — Topographic maps are now considered
an essential part of the equipment of the modern logger operating
in a rough region. These often are prepared in connection with
the timber cruise, but if they are not available previous to rail-
road location, engineers prepare them, using contour intervals of
20 or 50 feet depending on the accuracy required and the rough-
ness of the country. A successful engineer operating in Washing-
ton, on his reconnaissance survey preliminary to location, runs
FOREST RAILROADS 255
out and blazes all section lines; determines distances by pacing,
which are checked on quarter-section and section corners; and
secures elevations by means of an aneroid barometer. A rough
topographic map is prepared from this data and furnishes a basis
for the preliminary location.
Having roughly determined the route of the road, the pre-
liminary location follows. The engineer is aided in this work by
one or two rod men and two or more axmen, depending on the
density of brush along the route. Where an expensive road is to
be built, engineers recommend the use of a transit in preliminary
work, because of the accuracy demanded in final results. Some
use a railroad compass and a hand level of the Abney t>pe both
for main lines and spurs. In a fairly level country the railroad
compass will meet all needs, in fact some find a small staff com-
pass ample.
The engineer having traveled over the proposed route one or
more times and knowing the problems to be solved, locates a line
of tangents and sets stakes marked with the station number, at
100-foot intervals along the right-of-way. As the line pro-
gresses, the engineer, by trial, selects the points which will keep
his grades and curves within the limits set for the line. Several
trial lines may be necessary to secure a satisfactory grade.
On spur Hnes in a rough region and on main lines in a fairly
level region, the preliminary survey is dispensed with. A rail-
road compass or a box compass is often used in lieu of a transit,
and in many sections the woods' foreman or superintendent
replaces the engineer.
A common method in the pineries of the South is to locate a
line of tangents by the use of three 6-foot straight pickets, along
which the locator sights, placing center stakes at 100-foot
intervals.
The final location of the line of tangents is followed by the
location of curves. Loggers have a number of rule-of-thumb
methods of locating curves, which, although inaccurate, are
satisfactory for railroads where a high degree of engineering
abihty is not demanded. Many who use rule-of-thumb methods
determine the deflection angle by eye and lay off trial curves,
256 LOGGING
persisting until they find one which will connect their two
tangents. Three methods are in general use by logging engineers
for laying out curves on logging roads; namely, the tangent-
offset method, by distance scaled from a map, and by the use
of a transit or compass.^
On main line work in a rough region, the location survey is
followed by a line of levels which furnishes data for a profile map
on which the "elevation of grade " is shown. This is preliminary
to making an estimate of the cost of moving earth and rock.
The cubic yardage is computed from cross sections'- taken along
the proposed grade at each station on level or fairly level ground,
and at ever}' point where there is a decided change in the con-
figuration of the surface.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER XVH
Ellis, L. R.: Xecessity for an Accurate Topographic Map in Logging Opera-
tions. Timberman, July, 191 1, pp. 49-53.
Henry, H. P. : Advantages of Topographic Survej-s and Logg.ng Plans. The
Timberman, August, 1912, pp. 65-67.
Peed, \V. W.: Xecessit}' for the Logging Engineer in ^Modern Logging Opera-
tions. The Timberman, August, 1910, pp. 47-49.
Raxkix, R. L.: Practical Topographical Surveys for Building Logging Roads.
The Timberman, March, 191 2, p. 27.
V.\x Orsdel, John P. : Topographic Survey and its Economic Value in Logging
Operations. The Timberman, August, 1910, p. 64.
: How to Obtain the Highest Practical Efiicienc}^ in Woods
Operations. The Timberman, September, 1910. pp. 48-51.
Wood, A. B.: Accurate Topographic Map is a Good Investment in Logging
Operations. The Timberman, August, 191 2, p. 67.
1 See "Plane Surveying,"' by John Clayton Tracy. John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1908. pp. 204-208.
2 See "Earthwork and its Cost," by H. P. Gillette. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 1912. pp. 175-182. "Highway Construction," by Austin T. Bj'me.
John Wiley and Sons, N. Y., 1902. pp. 447-454. "Theory and Practice of Sur-
vej'ing," by J. B. Johnson. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1901. pp. 438-471.
CHAPTER XVIII
JL^ILROAD CONSTRUCTION
The construction of the roadbed for a logging railroad usually
precedes logging by a few weeks, although it may be several
months or a year in advance. An advantage of the latter is
that the roadbed has an opportunity to settle before the steel is
laid and the road operated. This gives a more stable track and
one that is cheaper to maintain. In regions subject to heavy
rainfall and with earth that washes badly, this practice is not
desirable since the roadbed will suffer through erosion.
CLEARING THE RIGHT-OF-WAY
Previous to starting the grading of the right-of-way, it is
necessary to cut and remove the standing timber, brush and
stumps which will interfere with the roadbed. This work is often
done by contract at a stated price per acre, with or without an
additional payment for all merchantable saw logs cut.
Main line rights-of-way are generally cut loo feet wide in order
to prevent the track from being covered with " down timber "
during wind storms. On spur roads the right-of-way is usually
from i8 to 50 feet wide. In the South, however, rights-of-way for
spurs are often made 120 feet wide in order to provide skidway
space on each side of the track. The right-of-way crew fells
the timber, removes the stumps from the roadbed, if necessary,
and cuts the brush from the skidway site. The timber adjacent
to the roadbed is not felled until the surrounding area is logged,
because insects seriously damage felled timber that remains in
the forest during the warm months. Where the skidway sites
are cleared off by the logging crew the cost is usually greater
than by the method above mentioned both because of the
enforced idleness of the teams and the low efficiency of team-
257
258 LOGGING
sters when performing swamping work which is usually distaste-
ful to them.
The timber cut from a right-of-way may be used for saw
logs, culverts, trestles, bridges, corduroy and for filling in low
places to reduce the amount of earth required for fills. Material
of merchantable value both from green and ''dead-and-down"
timber is cut into saw logs and either scattered or piled on skid-
ways along the right-of-way outside of the grade line.
On main lines and spurs all stumps should be removed from
the roadbed unless they are on the site of a proposed fill and will
be covered with at least one foot of earth; or so located that
they will not furnish a bearing for any part of the track; or the
character of the ground is such that the removal of the stump
during wet weather will cause a soft spot which cannot be kept
up during the rainy period.
Where the stumps are to be covered with earth they are cut
off near the ground. Those on the right-of-way outside of the
roadbed may be cut at any convenient height. The removal of
stumps is usually accomplished by blasting with powder or
dynamite, by grubbing or by burning them out. The cost for
the former ranges from 30 cents to several dollars per stump,
and for grubbing from 6 to 8 cents for each inch of diameter.
Small and medium-sized trees can best be removed by cutting
all roots from 3 to 4 feet from the base of the tree and allow-
ing the weight of the crown and bole to aid in pulling out the
stump.
In the South clearing the main line right-of-way, including
the grubbing of stumps on the roadbed, can usually be done
by contract for $25 per acre. During 1910 a contract was let
in northern Louisiana for a 100-foot right-of-way, at a price
of $100 per mile. This included the felling of all timber and
the cutting off at the ground of all stumps on the roadbed,
but not their removal. The contractor received in addition, 50
cents per thousand feet for all merchantable material cut into
saw logs. A 40-foot right-of-way in this region can usually be
cleared and stumps on the roadbed removed for $90 per mile,
and a 100-foot right-of-way for $150 per mile.
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION 259
In the Pacific Northwest, clearing a 50-foot right-of-way costs
from $2 to $12 per 100 feet, depending on the amount of brush,
down timber and standing timber on the site and the difficulties
of moving it. The average should not exceed $500 per mile
if the stumps are blasted and the timber is dragged from the
right-of-way by a yarding engine.
Following the felling of the timber and the removal of stumps
comes the construction of the roadbed. This covers the move-
ment of earth and rock for cuts and fills, the construction of
trestles, culverts, cribbing and other timber structures.
FILLS AND CUTS
Fills on a logging road should be 12 or 14 feet wide on top for
a standard-gauge road and 10 or 12 feet wide for a narrow-gauge.
The standard slope for an earthwork fill is i^ : i.^ When the
fill is made from rock, a i : i slope may be ample.
In cuts the roadbed must be wide enough to give room for a
drainage ditch on either side. These will require about 3 addi-
tional feet each, and the cut should be about 16 feet at the
base. In earth cuts the ratio of slope is i^ : i and in solid rock
cuts the walls are perpendicular or nearly so.
Main lines are graded up carefully, and suitable ditches main-
tained. Even on level sections it is desirable to elevate the
track and put in ditches, because of the cheaper cost of main-
tenance during wet weather.
A form of main line spur track used in southern Arkansas
is shown in Fig. 75, a.
The earth from the ditches is sufficient for ballasting the ties
and the grade costs but little except for the ditches. The
1 The angle of repose or slope that a face of earth makes with the horizontal
when not subjected to the elements is as follows:
Compact earth 50 degrees or j to i
Clay, well drained 45 degrees or i to i
Gravel 40 degrees or i j to i
Dry sand 38 degrees or 15 to i
Wet sand 22 degrees or 2^ to i
Vegetable earth (loam) 28 degrees or if to i
Wet clay 16 degrees or 3 to i
26o
LOGGING
average cost per'ioo feet ranges from $6 to $7 for the type
showTi in Fig. 75, a, and from $3 to S4 for the one shown in
Fig. 75, ^•
On spurs a minimum of fill and cut work is done and ditching
is not resorted to unless absolutely necessary.
Wliere fills of 2 or more feet are to be made on spur roads, it
is a common practice to fill the bed of the grade with logs, if
nonmerchantable timber is close at hand and to place a cover of
earth over them to give a bearing for the ties. This practice
Fig. 75. — Two Methods of constructing a Grade for a Logging Railroad, a,
main line spur, b, secondary* spur. The ditch is cut to the dotted line when
the track is surfaced.
cheapens the cost of construction, especially when earth for a
fill must be taken from a "borrow" pit. This type of roadbed
^*dll last for at least one year.
The movement of earth and rock in the construction of cuts
and fills is most frecjv.^ntly done by contract. The unit on which
payment is based is the cubic yard, the material being measured
*'in place," that is, in the natural bank before it has been dis-
turbed. It is customary to classify the material to be moved
and to regulate the prices accordingly. The classification and
quantity of material moved are determined by the supervising
engineer.
RAILROAD COXSTRUCTIOX 261
The following standard classification is in extensive use :
(i) Earth. — Loam, sand, gravel or clay. Material that can
be handled with a pick and shovel, or that can be plowed
readily.
(2) Hardpan. — Very dense clays and gravels, cemented with
iron oxide. Soft shales that are easily 7>^orked may also be
included.
(3) Loose Rock. — Shales s,nd other rock that can be quarried
without blasting, althcugl': blasting may be rescr'^.ed to occa-
sionally.
(4) Solid Rock. — Material requiring blasting for removal.
The contract price per cubic yard for the removal of earth
or rock usually includes excavating, hauling, and placing the
material in a fill or a waste pit. It is not customary to pay for
making a cut and also tc pay for a fill made from the same
material; in other words, payment for a given cubic yard is
made but once. Grading contracts may have an "overhaul"
clause which provides that for all earth hauled more than a
specified distance ("free haul"), the contractor shall be paid
a stated sum per cubic yard for each 100 feet of overhaul. On
logging operations the length of free haul ranges from 100 to
500 feet.
The price paid for moving material varies greatl}' in dift'erent
regions and is influenced by the length of haul, the kind of
material moved, the character of classification, the degree of
accuracy used in actual classification and the season of the year,
the cost of winter work being about 25 per cent higher than that
of work done during the summer.
The following prices were paid on logging railroad operations
and represent general contract prices on work of this character.
The average work on logging roads except on the Pacific Coast
usually presents no special problems and can be performed with
simple equipment which does not require a heavy financial
outlay. Loggers are able, therefore, to contract with local men
on favorable terms.
262
LOGGING
Class.
Alabama.
Louisi-
ana.
Texas
Arkfn- Washington,
sas.
Con-
tract
price.
Free
haul.
Bonus for
overhaul.
Per 100 feet.
Con-
tract
price.'
Con-
tract
price.'
Contract
price.
Free
haul.
Bonus for
overhaul.
Per 100 feet.
Earth
Hardpan
Loose rock. .
Solid rock.. .
Cents.
25
35
65
Feet.
300
300
300
Cents.
0.05
0.05
0.05
Cents.
0.14
Cents.
0.16
Cents.
16-20
25
35-45
75-1-25
Feet.
100
100
100
100
Cents.
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
' No limit to free haul, but it was not great in any case.
MOVEMENT OF EARTH ^
The movement of earth for road construction, railroad grades
and trails may be performed in various ways among which the
following are in general use :
(i) With pick and shovel, the earth being loosened by the
pick and then thro^\^l directly out of the cut.
(2) Loosening by pick or plow and transport on wheel-
barrows, two-wheeled dump carts or dump wagons.
(3) Loosening by plow or by dynamite and transport on
drag scrapers, wheel scrapers or dump cars with horse draft.
(4) Steam shovel lift and transport on dump cars or flat cars.
The first three methods are employed by owners of compara-
tively simple and inexpensive outfits. Steam shovels are seldom
1 Earth of various kinds increases in bulk when disturbed for removal, as shown
in the following table:
Character of material.
Increase in
bulk.
Earth, freshly loosened
Clean sand and gravel
Loam, loamy sand and gravel
Dense clay, dense mixtures of gravel and clay
Unusually dense gravel and clay banks
Per cent.
14 to SO
14 to 15
20
33 to 50
Shrinkage in volume of embankments is dependent on the method used to com-
pact them. Loose earth with rainfall as the only compacting element will be about
8 per cent above normal at the expiration of a year. Earth compacted with two-
wheeled carts or scrapers occupies from 5 to 10 per cent less space than it did "in
place" and will shrink slightly more during the next few years.
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION
263
employed except where a large amount of earth is to be moved
and where a log loader that can be converted into a steam
shovel is available.
Plowing. — Contractors usually assume that a team and driver,
with a helper to hold the plow can loosen per hour, 25 cubic yards
of fairly tough clay; 35 cubic yards of gravelly loam; or 50
cubic yards of loam. A pick-pointed plow drawn by four or six
horses and with two men riding the plow beam, is required for
breaking up tough clay or hardpan, the usual rate being from 15
to 20 cubic yards per hour. Thirty-five cubic yards of "average
earth" per hour is considered satisfactory work.-^
Pick Work. — The pick is used only for light work and in
confined places. In one hour a man will loosen from 1.6 to 2.3
cubic yards of earth, from 0.7 to i.i cubic yards of gravel, or
0.9 cubic yards of hardpan.^
Picking and Shoveling. — Pick-loosened earth is nearly always
handled with a shovel. This method of moving earth is of
importance in forest work because most light railroad grades are
constructed in this manner, and it is also used in trail building.
The following table^ shows the average amount of cubic
yardage picked and shoveled by one man per hour.
Material.
Hardpan (clay and gravel).
Common earth
Hardpan
Clay (stiff)
Clay
vSand
Sandy soil
Clayey earth
Clay, fairly tough
Sandy soil, frozen
Gravel or clay
Earth
Capacity per
man per hour.
Cubic yards.
0.4
0.8-1. 2
0.85
I .00
I 25
0.8-1.2
1-3
0.9
0.75
-0.8
Cost per cubic
yard.i
Cents.
37i
19-125
455
17*
15
12
19-12^
13-14
Authority.
M. Ancelin
Cole
Gillette
Billings
Hogdson
1 Wages 15 cents per hour.
' The data on output are taken from '' Earthwork and Its Cost," by H. P. Gil-
lette. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 191 2.
.2 From "Earthwork and its Cost," by H. P. Gillette. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1912. P. 23.
264
LOGGING
The hourly output per man shoveling average soil is 1.4 cubic
yards, but this may be increased to 2 cubic yards under efficient
supervision.
With Dynamite. — A logging operator in Mississippi describes^
a method of making cuts in gumbo 5 feet or less in depth when
the earth is to be ''wasted." The reported cost was 50 per cent
less than with the usual methods of moving earth.
Holes of the required depth and 20 inches apart were made
with a round, sharpened bar. The outside row of holes had a
degree of slant that would produce a cut with sides of the desired
slope. After covering the site of the proposed cut with holes,
they were loaded with 60 per cent dynamite. The center holes
were loaded heavier than the others and were primed for electric
firing. The explosion of the central charges fired the others.
The length of cut blasted at one time did not exceed 200 feet.
A large amount of the earth was thrown entirely out of the cut
and the remainder was handled readily with a drag scraper. In
tight wet earth one ton of 60 per cent dynamite will loosen earth
for 1600 linear feet, where the maximum cut is 5 feet.
Wheelbarrows. — Barrows are not profitable for moving earth
except on short hauls, for stony soil, and in places unfavorable
for the use of horses. The average load on level runs is approxi-
mately 250 pounds or yV of a cubic yard of earth, and on fairly
steep grades -^V of a cubic yard, ''place measure."
The average amounts moved, per barrow, on a level in ten
hours and the cost per cubic yard for picking, shoveling and
moving, when wages are 15 cents per hour, are as follows:^
Distance.
Quantity.
Cost per cubic
yard.
Feet.
100
75
SO
25
Cubic yards.
10.5
II . I
II. 8
12.5
Cents.
22.50
21.25
20.00
18.75
1 See American Lumberman, Chicago, Illinois, July 15, 191 1, p. 50.
^ The figures on the amount of work performed and costs are based on data
contained in " Earthwork and its Cost," by H. P. Gillette. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Xew York, 19 12.
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION
265
Two-wheeled Dump Carts. — These are used for transporting
material for distances varying from 75 to 500 feet, and are
especially serviceable on short hauls and in narrow cuts.
The average load of dump carts on level roads is 0.37 cubic
yards, and on steep ascents 0.25 cubic yards, "place measure."
On short hauls one driver attends two carts, leading one to
the dump while the other is being loaded. On long hauls he
may handle two carts by taking both at one time. The carts
are loaded at the pit by shovelmen.
When wages are 15 cents, and horse hire 10 cents per hour
the average day's work on level ground for a one-horse cart of
\ cubic yard capacity, and the cost per cubic yard for plowing,
shoveling and hauling average earth are as follows : ^
Distance.
Quantity.
Cost per cubic
yard.
Feet.
100
200
300
400
Cubic yards.
40.0
33-3
28.5
25.0
Cents.
20.25
21.50
22.75
24.00
Dump Wagons. — Where a wagon is used, a fiat-bottom, two-
horse type is preferred, which usually has the following capacity:
Character of road.
Capacity.
Very poor earth road
Poor earth road
Cubic yards.
0.8
I .0
1.6
Good hard earth road
An average team will travel 20 miles per day on fairly hard
earth roads, that is, 10 miles loaded and 10 miles without a
load. On poor roads and soft ground 15 miles is the maximum
distance. These rates of travel include occasional stops for
rests.
When wages are 15 cents and horse hire 10 cents per hour,
1 The figures on the amount of work performed and costs are based on data
contained in ' Earthwork and its Cost," by H. P. Gillette. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 19 12.
266
LOGGING
the cost per cubic yard, and the average amounts of earth moved
daily are as follows : ^
'
Distance.
Quantity.
Cost per cubic
yard.
Feet.
Cubic yards.
Cents.
300
75
20. 1
4cx>
20.8
500
21-5
600
22.2
8cx)
50
23.6
1000
34
25.0
2000
26
32.0
3cxx>
390
4000
46.0
5000
53-0
Drag Scrapers. — A drag scraper is a steel scoop used for
moving earth for short distances. It is the preferable form for
stony ground and for soils filled with roots. It is drawn by two
horses.
The No. 2 scraper, weighing about 100 pounds, is the one
commonly used, and costs from $10 to $15. Its actual capacity,
''place measure," is yo of a cubic yard of tough clay; i cubic
yard of gravel; or \ cubic yard of loam.
Drag scrapers work in units of three on short hauls, the teams
traveling about 50 feet apart in an ellipse. They are loaded
by an extra man as they pass the pit and are dumped by the
teamsters.
On a 50-foot haul the average ten-hour output for a drag
scraper is 62 cubic yards of earth and gravel, and 40 cubic yards
of stiff clay. The cost per cubic yard of handling average earth
is approximately 9 cents for a 50-foot, and 10 cents for a 100-foot,
haul.^ Earth for scraper work is loosened with a plow or by
dynamite.
Wheel Scrapers. — The wheel scraper consists of a steel scoop
hung low between two wheels. The following sizes are in com-
mon use:
1 The figures on the amount of work performed and costs are based on data,
contained in " Earthwork and its Cost," by H. P. Gillette. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 191 2.
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION
267
Number i wheelers are used for short hauls and steep rises
and should replace drag scrapers under these conditions except
where the soil is rocky or full of roots. Snatch teams are re-
quired for loading No. 2 and larger scrapers, and even then it is
impossible to fill the bowl in tough clay. Shovels must be used
for this purpose.
Weight.
Actual capacityi,
" place measure."
No. I
No. 2
No. 2.|
N0.3
Pounds.
340 to 450
475 to 500
575
625 to 800
Cubic yards.
1
i
i
1
3
' When the bowl is level full of earth.
When wages are 15 cents and horse hire 10 cents per hour the
cost per cubic yard and the amount of earth moved daily with a
No. I scraper is approximately as follows:^
Distance.
Quantity.
Cost per cubic
yard.
Feet.
Cubic yards.
Cents.
100
48.0
8.75
200
34 0
11.50
300
26.6
14-25
400
22.0
17.00
600
16.0
22.50
Cars with Animal Draft. — Horse-drawn dump cars, ranging
in capacity from i to 3 cubic yards, may be advantageously
employed where large quantities of earth are to be moved for a
distance of several hundred feet. They are generally run on
16 or 20-pound steel rails, with 6 by 6-inch by 5-foot unballasted
ties spaced about 4 feet, center to center. The cost of laying
such a track averages $100 per mile, exclusive of the value of
the material.
A dump car with a capacity of 2 cubic yards weighs about
^ The figures on the amount of work performed and costs are based on data
contained in " Earthwork and its Cost," by H. P. Gillette. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 191 2.
268
LOGGING
one ton and holds about 5400 pounds of earth. A horse can
pull a loaded car on a level all day, and can go up 4 per cent
grades occasionally, if frequent rests are given. The hauling
ability of hea\y horses pulling cars up different grades is ap-
proximately as follows:
Grade. , One horse.
Two horses.
Level
1 per cent
2 per cent
3 per cent
4 per cent
Cubic yards.
2. CO
1 . 10
0.64
0.37
0.18
Cubic yards.
50
3-0
2.0
1-5
0.75 to 1. 10
When wages are 15 cents and horse hire 10 cents per hour a
2-cubic-yard dump car drawn by one horse will move approxi-
mately the following yardage daily:
Distance.
Quantity.
Cost per cubic
yard.
Feet.
1000
2000
3000
4000
Cubic yards.
85 to 90
60 to 65
35 to 40
20 to 25
Cents.
0.17
0.18
0. 19
0. 20
The cars are loaded by shovelers, each handling from 15 to
18 cubic yards daily. ^
Steam Shovels. — Steam shovels are occasionally used on
logging railroad work where large cuts are to be made or heavy
ditching work done. ''American" log loaders are offered on the
market with a steam shovel attachment so that the loader can be
converted into a shovel when desired. The dipper used has a
capacity of approximately ^e ^f a cubic yard, and under favor-
able circumstances from 50 to 60 cubic yards per hour can be
moved. Regular steam shovel work costs from 9 cents per cubic
yard upward.
1 The figures on the amount of work performed and costs are based on data
contained in ''Earthwork and its Cost," by H. P. Gillette. McGraw-Hill Book
Company. New York, 191 2.
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION 269
ROCK EXCAVATION
Previous to excavation rock is broken by an explosive into
Iragments that can be handled readily.
It is transported chiefly in carts, wagons and cars, although
it may be moved for short distances on wheelbarrows or thrown
out by hand in shallow cuts.
A cubic yard, place measure, of rock increases from 60 to
80 per cent when broken up. On an average only 60 per cent
as much yardage of rock can be hauled as of earth.
Pa>Tnent for the removal of rock which is classified as '4oose
rock" and "solid rock" is on the basis of the cubic yard, ''in
place."
A. BLASTING
The holes in which charges are placed are usually bored with
hand drills. The diameter and spacing of holes depend upon the
kind of explosive used, the character of the rock and the method
of handling it. As a rule, the holes are spaced a distance apart
equal to their depth, although in hard rock they are often placed
closer together. Close spacing increases the amount of drill
work required and the quantity of explosive used, although it
is often more economical because of the smaller size of material,
which makes handling cheaper.
Drilling. — Hand drilling is preferred for logging work because
of the limited amount of rock moved and the difficulties of trans-
porting drilling machinery and equipment to the site of the work.
There are three forms of drills used for hand work; namely,
the "churn drill," the "jumper drill" and the "hand drill."
Churn Drill. — This is the most economical form of drill for
holes up to 30 feet in depth and from i| to 2^ inches in diameter.
The drill consists of a i|- or i^-inch round iron bar of the
required length, on one end of which is welded a steel chisel bit
from 30 to 100 per cent wider than the diameter of the rod.
Several rods of different lengths are required for drilling a deep
hole.
The drill is operated by raising it from 18 to 24 inches and
allowing it to drop, the weight of the drill furnishing the power.
270
LOGGING
One man can operate a drill for holes 3 feet or under in depth, two
men for those of medium depth and three or four men for the
deepest holes.
Trautwine gives the following as an average ten hours' work
for a churn drill:
Character of rock.
Depth of
hole.
Hard gneiss, granite or silicious limestone
Tough compact hornblende
Solid quartz
Ordinary limestone
Sandstone
to 10
Jumper Drill. — These are shorter than churn drills and are
operated by two or more men, one of whom sitting down holds the
drill and revolves it about | of a revolution after each stroke,
while the other men strike the drill head with 8- or 12-pound
sledge hammers.
The drill rods are of |-inch octagon steel and the bits are i^
or i\ inches wide. The maximum depth for efhcient work with
a three-man jumper drill ranges between 6 and 8 feet.
Since it can be held on the exact spot, this drill can be used
for smaller holes than a churn drill. It is also best for con-
glomerate rock, because it is not so easily deflected by pebbles.
The amount of work performed in ten hours by three men, one
holder and two strikers, using a jumper is approximately as fol-
lows for 6-foot holes :^
Character of rock.
Feet.
Granite
7
II
16
Trap (basalt)
Limestone
Hand Drill. — The hand drilling method is similar to jump
drilling, except that the operator sitting down holds the drill with
1 From "Handbook of Cost Data," by H. B. Gillette. Myron C. Clark Pub-
lishing Co., Chicago, 111., 1910. P. 1S5.
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION 27 1
one hand and strikes the drill with a 2- or 4^ -pound hammer held
in the other hand. These are used only for holes of small diam-
eter, 3 feet or less in depth. This drill may be used for hori-
zontal or inclined bores.
Hand drill rods are made of octagon steel and range in size
from f of an inch in diameter, with a |- or i-inch bit, up to a
|-inch rod wnth a i j-inch bit. A i-inch drill rod is the maximum
size practicable. Chisel-shaped bits, similar to those for jumper
and churn drills, are used.
B. EXPLOSIVES^
Explosives for blasting belong to two general classes:
1. High explosives which require for explosion an inter-
mediate agent, such as a fulminate detonator.
2. Low explosives which can be fired by direct ignition.
High Explosives. — For blasting purposes these are marketed
in the form of dynamite, giant powder, gelatine, and some other
similar products. The more powerful forms are composed of a
mixture of nitro-glycerine and some absorbent, such as sawdust
and wood pulp, while the lower grades contain explosive salts
in addition. Xitro-ghxerine undergoes no change when com-
bined with the absorbent, the latter acting only as a cushion and
as a means of solidifying the liquid.
High explosives are made of varying strengths and are graded
on the percentage of nitro-glycerine they contain. The standard
grades range from 75 per cent down. Those most frequently
used are 40 and 60 per cent, the former being preferred for many
classes of work.
High-grade d}Tiamite explodes with great suddenness and will
shatter rocks and stiunps into small fragments. It is especially
suitable for very hard rock or where small drill holes are necessary.
Medium grades are best for soft rock because their explosive
force is not so violent and sudden, and the tendency is to heave
up large masses of rock rather than to shatter them into smaller
fragments.
^ The author is indebted to pubhcations of the E. I. DuPont de Nemours Co.
for many facts regarding explosives.
272 LOGGING
Dynamite which is rather soft resembles brown sugar. It
is packed in paraiiine- coated paper shells or cartridges, the
standard size being i^ by 8 inches and containing one-half pound.
Other sizes, from |-inch to 2 inches in diameter and 6 inches and
over in length are also manufactured. D}Tiamite cartridges are
packed in sawdust in wooden boxes containing 25 or 50 pounds
each.
D}Tiamite freezes between 35 and 50 degrees Fahrenheit and
when frozen must be thawed before use. Thawing kettles which
are best for this work consist of a double galvanized iron bucket
having an inner water-tight receptacle for dynamite and an outer
receptacle for warm water which must not exceed 100 degrees
Fahrenheit, otherwise the nitro-glycerine may separate from the
absorbent. Cartridges are sometimes spread out on a shelf in a
warm room and left during the night but should never be thawed
in an oven, near a fire or placed against a stove or steam pipe.
A few cartridges can be easily thawed out by placing them flat
in a water-tight box and burying them in fresh manure.
Great care must be taken to prevent the dynamite from coming
into contact with moisture, because water has a greater affinity
for the absorbent than has nitro-glycerine, and the latter will be
driven out; on low grades of d}'namite the salts of the auxiliary
explosives are also expelled.
Dynamite with a high percentage of nitro-glycerine de-
teriorates during warm weather, when stored in a warm place, or
if kept for long periods. Chemical decomposition takes place,
liberating nitrous fumes which often are the cause of violent
explosions. A greenish color on the cartridges is a certain in-
dication of chemical decomposition, and handling d}Tiamite in
such condition is always dangerous.
Xitro-glycerine from the cartridge may be absorbed through
the hands, and men who handle d}'namite are subject to severe
headaches. This may be obviated partially by wearing gloves
which should be throwm away as soon as they become saturated.
Loading Holes. — The charge should completely fill the bore
hole because explosives exert the greatest disruptive force when
there are no air spaces below the tamping.
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION 273
In loading dry holes the cartridge case is cut on one side, and
the cartridge lowered into the hole and gently pressed until it
completely fills the bore. This is repeated until a sufficient
amount of explosive has been placed. When the hole is wet the
cartridge case should not be cut.
The hole is now ready for the primer and for tamping.
Primers and Priming. — Most forms of dynamite are exploded
by the use of a fulminate detonator or cap, which is ignited either
by a safety fuse or an electric fuse. The former is used for
individual charges and the latter where many are to be fired
simultaneously.
Safety Fuse and Caps. — There are several grades of safety
fuse offered on the market, some of which are waterproofed for
submarine work. The fuse used for blasting ordinarily burns at
the rate of 2 or 3 feet per minute, and is marketed in packages
containing two coils, each 50 feet long.
The cap consists of a hollow copper cylinder j by i^ inches in
size which is closed at one end. It is partly filled with from
three to twelve grains of fulminate of mercury. The open end
is sealed with shellac, collodion, thin copper foil, or paper. Caps
deteriorate very rapidly when exposed to moisture. Several
grades are made, but for general use a No. 6 is preferred.
In making the primer for an ordinary blast a piece of safety
fuse of the required length is cut oft' and one end inserted into
the cap until it comes in contact with the filling. The fuse is
held in place by crimping the cap |-inch from the open end.
The fuse and cap are then ready for insertion in the primer,
which consists of a cartridge of dynamite of the same size and
quality as that used in the charge.
There are two methods of inserting the cap into the primer.
A common method (Fig. 76, a) is to open the paper at the end
of a cartridge, and, with a sharpened stick about the size of a
lead pencil, make a hole |-inch deep in the dynamite. The cap,
with fuse attached, is then inserted in this cavity and should
project |-inch above the dynamite, otherwise the sputtering of
the fuse may ignite the dynamite before it does the cap. The
cartridge paper is then tied around the fuse with a string, care
274
LOGGING
>
r 1
"■
\
d
Fig. 76. — Method of placinc
with fuse inserted and the
cap shell crimped.
being taken not to pull the cap out of the primer. If the car-
tridges are used in wet places soap or tallow is smeared over
the safety fuse at the point where it en-
ters the cartridge to prevent the entrance
of moisture into the blasting cap.
Some persons prefer to use the method
of attaching caps shown in Fig. 76, b.
A hole is punched in the side of the
cartridge with a sharp wooden stick
and the fuse attached as shown. This
method is satisfactory because the fuse
Caps in the Primer, a, and comes against the side of the bore and is
b are for firing with safety ^^^ .^-^^^^ ^^ disturbed bv the tamping
fuse, c, for firing with an ■' i' ,i i r
electric batter}-, d, shows bar, and the cap cannot be pulled from
the cap ready for the in- the primer and thus cause a misfire,
sertion of the fuse, e, cap Primers are placed on top of the
charge, but in deep holes, manufacturers
recommend that additional blasting caps
without fuse be placed at 5-foot intervals throughout the charge.
Electric Fuse. — When it is desired to fire several different
charges at one time electric fuses are used in connection with a
battery. They consist of two wires inserted in a cap containing
a mixture of fulminate of mercury and potassium nitrate or
chlorate. The open end of the cap is plugged with sulphur.
The fuses are adjusted as shown in Fig. 76, c. When an electric
fuse is used the primer is often placed in the center of the charge.
The practice in electric firing is to separate the two wires on the
fuse and connect one to a wire on a charge on one side and the
other to one on a charge on the opposite side. The entire set
is connected up in this manner leaving one free wire extending
both from the first and the last hole. The two leading wires, 250
feet or more in length, are then coimected to the above wires and
carried to some protected point. When all is in readiness the
leading wires are attached to the poles of the battery and the
charge fired by an electric firing machine.
Tamping. — Tamping should always be done with a wooden
bar, never with a tool having any metal parts, and the tamping
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION 275
material must be free from all forms of grit, and of such a nature
that it will pack firmly. The most satisfactory is moist clay or
loam.
After the charge has been pressed tightly in the bore a paper
wad may be placed over the primer to keep it dry and from 2
to 3 inches of tamping material put in and firmly, but gently,
packed. Two to 3 inches more of tamping material are again
added and thoroughly tamped. After 5 or 6 inches of earth
have been placed in the bore the tamping can be carried on
without fear of premature explosion. The hole should be filled
to the surface and the material tightly packed, or it will blow out
and much of the force of the explosive will be lost.
Low Explosives. — Low explosives belong to either the soda or
the saltpeter class and are known as black powder. The average
contain approximately 75 per cent of nitrate of soda, or India
saltpeter, 10 per cent of sulphur, and 15 per cent of carbon.
Dynamite of 75 per cent strength is usually rated as six times
stronger than average black powder. Soda powders can be made
cheaper than saltpeter powders but are more absorbent of
moisture and, therefore, deteriorate quicker.
Black powders are especially suited for loosening hardpan,
shale, and other soft or rotten rock where a lifting action is
desired. It is much slower than high-grade dynamite and does
not shatter the rock as much. It is also used in redwood opera-
tions to blast open logs that are too large to be handled otherwise.
Black powder is fired by a safety fuse, by a safety fuse and a
cap of low power, or by an electric fuse. In loading holes the
powder may be placed loose or in cartridges. When the holes
open downward the latter form is the only method possible.
In priming holes it is customary to place the safety fuse or
safety fuse and cap at the top of the charge while electric fuses
are ordinarily placed in the center of the charge.
Moist clay is the most satisfactory tamping material, 2 or 3
inches of dry earth being placed over the powder to prevent the
upper end of the charge from becoming moist.
When blasting with black powder the holes may be "sprung"
with dynamite before the powder is inserted, in order that a
276 LOGGING
larger cavity may be made for the powder. Dynamite of 40
per cent strength is used for ''springing," about o^^ of a pound
per cubic yard being fired in shale, and y*Q of a pound per cubic
yard in sandstone. "Sprung" holes should not be charged until
they have become cool.
The amount of black powder required per cubic yard of
material to be blasted is governed by the depth of hole, character
of rock, and spacing of holes. Authorities on the use of black
powder do not attempt to give any rules for determining the
amount of charge. Charges of i pound per cubic yard have
proved successful in side cuts and from i^ to 3 pounds per cubic
yard in through cuts.^ The amount to use under given condi-
tions can be determined only after a few trial shots.
Black powder is put up in 25- or 50-pound cans and costs from
6 to 9 cents per pound.
STUMP BLASTING
The removal of stumps from the right-of-way of roads, trails,
logging grades, and from pond and building sites can often be
accomplished to best advantage by the use of explosives. Dyna-
mite of the 40 and 60 per cent grades is preferable to black
powder for this purpose.
The position of the blast with reference to the stump should
be governed by the size of stump, character of root system, and
kind of soil. Charges should always be placed immediately
under the stump but not in it, and as near as possible to its
toughest part.
In sandy soil stumps with a shallow root system require more
explosive than those with tap roots.
They blast easier in heavy and moist soils than in light or
dry ones.
For blasting yellow pine stumps with long tap roots the charge
should be placed near the tap root and at a distance under ground
at least equal to the diameter of the stump. Forty per cent
dynamite is usually preferred.
1 See "Handbook of Cost Data," by H. B. Gillette. Myron C. Clark Publish-
ing Company, Chicago, 111., 1910. P. 204.
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION 277
Cypress stumps have many lateral roots and since they
usually grow on mucky soil they are difficult to blow out. A
quick powerful explosive, such as 60 per cent dynamite, is recom-
mended by manufacturers. The common practice with swamp
species is to place a |-pound cartridge under each large lateral
root, and 4 or 5 pounds under the center of the stump. The
charge is then fired with an electric blasting machine.
Stumps with defective centers often split apart and allow the
force of the explosive to pass upward without blowing out the
roots. This can be obviated by placing a chain around the top
of the stump.
Where a right-of-way must be cleared of stumps, it is easier
to blow them out before the tree is cut because the weight of
the crown helps to pull out the roots.
The holes in which the explosive is placed are best bored by
a 2 -inch auger welded to a 5 -foot iron rod that has a ring on the
upper end through which a round stick can be inserted for a
handle.
The depth of the charge below the stump should be governed
largely by the size of the stump itself. Dynamite, in exploding,
tends to exert a force equally in all directions. When placed
under a stump the soil below the charge offers greater resistance
than the soil above and the force is exerted upward in the form
of an inverted cone. Consequently the deeper the charge is
placed the wider the cone at the surface of the earth.
A rule^ followed with success in Minnesota was to place the
charge at least i-foot deep for all stumps i foot or less in diam-
eter, and proportionally deeper as the diameter increased.
Holes are charged, primed and tamped in a manner similar
to bore holes in rock. Enough explosive should be placed under
the stump to remove it at the first shot, because it is difficult
to make an effective blast in loosened dirt.
One thousand stumps, ranging from 18 to 48 inches in diam-
eter and averaging 30 inches, which were blasted in Minnesota
required from one-half to eight, 40 per cent dynamite cartridges,
the average number being three per stump.
^ See Minnesota Farmer's Institute Annual, No. 21, 1908.
278 LOGGING
The DuPont Powder Company recommends, in general, a
charge of i^ pounds of 20 per cent d}Tiamite for each foot in
diameter of stump, up to 4 feet; above this diameter 2^ pounds
per foot in diameter.
On dry ground one man can bore holes, load, and blow out
an average of fifty stumps per day, if they are not widely scat-
tered.
TIMBER WORK
The construction of trestles, culverts, cribbing, and other
timber work is done just previous to track laying.
Trestles. — These are used in crossing streams and depressions
where the cost of a fill would be excessive. They are cheaper
to build than heavy fills and when the road is used for a short
time only, the trestle timber can be taken up and used on another
line.
They are built in two t\pes kno\\-n as pile trestles and frame
trestles, and are made in sections, called bents, which are spaced
12 or 14 feet apart.
Pile trestles are used largely in stream beds and swampy
spots where good foundations for framed trestles cannot be
secured. Low pile trestle bents usually consist of three round
piles from 12 to 15 inches in diameter, driven in a row across the
roadbed. On a standard gauge road one pile is placed in the
center of the roadbed and the outer piles are placed from 24
to 28 inches on either side of it. On medium height trestles
for standard-gauge track four piles are used, the two inner
ones being spaced 3 feet apart, center to center, and the outer
piles 26 inches, center to center, on either side of the middle
ones.
They are driven with a pile driver to bed rock, or solid bottom,
and are sawed off at the required height above ground. A 10
by lo-inch, a 12 by 12-inch, or a 15 by 15-inch timber, called
a ''cap," is drift bolted on top of them with f by 21-inch drift
bolts.
The bents are connected by stringers, each 8 by 14 inches or
9 by 16 inches in size, which are placed at right angles on top of
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION
279
I
Pi
fj^
^1=
'fe^^
3e
7
A
CJ
Ph
28o LOGGING
the caps and support the crossties. Two stringers are used under
each rail. They are spaced 2 inches apart with washers, and
then bolted together. They may also be drift-bolted to the caps
to hold them in position. Sawed ties, 6 by 8 inches by 8 feet,
are placed 24 inches, center to center, on top of the stringers,
and are often sunk about ^ inch into them. An occasional cross-
tie is also drift-bolted to the stringers. Three- by 8-inch guard
rails are then placed on top of the ends of the ties parallel to
the stringers and spiked to every other tie to prevent the ties
from bunching.
Where the trestle is less than 9 feet high it is seldom braced,
but where the height exceeds this it is braced on each side with
3- by 6-inch scantlings placed diagonally across each row of piles,
the top end of the brace being fastened to the cap and the lower
end to the opposite side of the bent just above the ground.
The scantlings are spiked to the cap and to each pile.
Where the bent exceeds 20 feet in height it is divided into two
stories by horizontal braces of 3- by 8-inch scantling, and each
story is braced diagonally in the manner described above. At
each story every bent is connected by a longitudinal brace.
Bents over 20 feet in height consist of five piles whose diameters
should not be less than one-twentieth of their length. One pile
is placed in the center of each bent and two others are placed on
either side at a distance of approximately 24 inches, center to
center. The two other piles are placed about one foot out at
the top of the bent and are given a batter of 2 inches for each
foot of height.
In swampy sections the main line is sometimes built on piling.
The advantage of this form of road is that a firm foundation is
secured in places where dirt ballast could not be used, stumps
need not be removed, and the cost of maintenance for the first
few years is low.
In cypress swamps these roads are made of piles from 12 to
15 inches in diameter, driven down to a solid foundation, which
may be from 60 to 80 feet. Piles 30 feet long are made from one
cypress stick but lengths greater than this are secured by
placing one pile on top of another. Cypress is used for
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION 281
the top log and tupelo for the lower ones. The bents are placed
at 6-foot intervals and are composed of two piles driven 56^
inches apart, center to center.
A pile driver crew for building a road of this character is made
up of eight men who can cut and drive from twenty to thirty-six
piles (from 60 to 100 feet of track) per day of ten hours. The
roads are built from 2 to 6 feet above the ground level, and the
piles are sawed off at the desired height.
Stringers 8 by 8 inches, or 8 by 10 inches, are laid on top of
the piles and on these 6- by 8-inch by 8-foot crossties are laid,
24 inches center to center.
Thirty-five or 45 -pound steel rails are used.
Rod locomotives of from thirty to forty tons are generally
employed.
The approximate cost, per mile, of a road of this character is
^1400 for labor, and $1100 for stringers and crossties.
A road of similar character constructed on swampy ground in
the State of Washington cost $1300 per mile, exclusive of the
value of the timber used.^
Framed Trestles. — These are made both of round and squared
timbers, but if the former must be brought from a considerable
distance it is advisable to use the latter because they are easier
to fit, and are more durable.
The frames, or bents, consist of four supports, or legs, made
of round timber from 15 to 18 inches in diameter or 10- by
1 2-inch, or 1 2- by 1 2-inch squared timbers. On a standard-gauge
road two of the legs are vertical and 36 inches apart, while the
other two legs are given a batter of from 2 to 3 inches for each
foot of height. The legs rest on a timber called a sill to which
they are drift-bolted. Sills vary in length according to the height
of the trestle and project about 2 feet beyond the base of the
outer legs. The tops of the legs are covered with a cap 12 or
14 feet long on which the stringers rest.
Framed bents may rest on mud sills, or piles. Where mud
sills are used they are frequently 12 by 12 inches by 4 feet and
are placed at right angles to the bent, and a sufficient number
^ See The Timberman, August, 19 10, pp. 37-38.
282
LOGGING
are used to provide a greater bearing surface than that offered
by the main sill.
Mud sills are suited for a bottom solid enough to provide a
firm support but they are not adapted for use in swamps or
stream beds. The foundations used in the two latter cases
consist of piles driven to bed rock, one being placed under the
base of each leg, and cut off 2 or 3 feet above high-water mark.
F/iolograph by R. C. Hall.
Fig. 78. — .A Round Timber Framed Trestle on a Logging Railroad.
The large skidway on the right is several feet below the level of
the track. Alabama.
Stringers, ties and guard rails are used as on a pile trestle,
and the bents are braced in the same manner.
Cost of Trestles. — Framed trestles are frequently built by
contract, the price being regulated by the amount of timber used
and the height of the trestle. The labor charge for trestle con-
struction where the structure is less than 10 feet in height is from
$2 to $4 per thousand feet of timber used, while high trestles may
cost from $7 to $10.
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION
283
Payment for pile trestles, when built by contract, is made on
the basis of the number of piles driven and the amount of sawed
timber used in the remainder of the structure.
Dunnage or Dust Road. — This is a type of cheap logging
road employed for spurs in the cypress swamps of Louisiana
where the bottom is too soft for dirt ballast, and the cost of
a pile road is not warranted by the amount of timber to be
removed.
Fig. 79. — The Foundation for a Dunnage Road. Louisiana.
The construction of a dunnage road is preceded by clearing
a right-of-way from 15 to 20 feet wide from which all brush is
cut and stumps removed from the line of the roadbed. The latter
is covered with small poles from 5 to 6 inches in diameter, laid
close together, lengthwise of the right-of-way. These give a
wide bearing surface and serve as a bed on which the ballast is
placed. The crossties are laid on the poles and the rails spiked
284 LOGGING
to them. The track is then ballasted with bark, edgings, saw-
dust and sawmill refuse of all sorts w^hich is brought from the
mill in ''dunnage'" cars. The dunnage is dumped on either side
of the rails, then thoroughly tamped under the ties and, when the
track is leveled up. it is ready for operation. Light-weight
locomotives, from 18 to 30 tons, are used because this t\pe of
roadbed will not stand heavy traffic.
The labor cost of constructing dunnage roads including the
laWng and taking up of steel is from S1300 to S1500 per mile.
Crihwork. — A crib foundation may be used when logging
railroads cross low places that are too soft for a fill, and where
the lumber company is not prepared to put in piling. Logs 18 or
24 inches in diameter and 16 or 18 feet long are placed across
the right-of-way at intervals of 8 feet. On top of these, and
parallel to the roadbed, round stringers from 18 to 24 inches in
diameter are placed 56^ inches, center to center. These are
notched into the cross-skids and drift-bolted to them. The
crossties are then laid on top of these stringers. The cross-
skids are given a greater bearing surface by placing "shims" or
poles from 4 to 6 inches in diameter and 8 or 10 feet long at
right angles under them.
Labor on work of this character costs from S4 to $6 per thou-
sand feet of timber used.
Corduroy for Logging Roads. — An excellent practice followed
by some loggers in the South is to corduro\' unballasted spur
tracks on wet ground with 16- or 20-foot poles from 4 to 12 inches
in diameter (Fig. 80). A pole is placed in the space between
the ties and projects out far enough on either side to rest on
solid ground or roots. The poles provide a level support to
the track. Even though it does sink temporarily under the
weight of the train, it will go down on a level, so that there is
no danger of derailment, while shims placed under the ties par-
allel with the roadbed often allow the track to settle on one side.
Wlien spurs cross swampy groimd, some loggers dispense with
ties, and cover the roadbed with poles 10 or 12 feet long to
which the rails are spiked. A road of this character will support
light traffic even on a verv wet bottom.
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION
285
Culverts. — These are used where the grade crosses very small
streams, or slight depressions where it is necessary to have
drainage from one side of the grade to the other.
They are ordinarily made by placing logs from 18 to 30 inches
in diameter across the right-of-way on either side of the stream
Fig. 80. — A Spur Logging Railroad corduroyed with Poles. .Arkansas.
and covering them with slabs split from 12- to 18-inch timbers.
Brush is often piled on top of the slabs to prevent the dirt from
falling through, and the grade is then built over the culvert.
Box culverts made of plank are seldom used because of the
greater cost for material. Round galvanized iron culverts are
now used on some main lines.
286 LOGGING
Cattle Guards. — Log roads that pass over private lands or
cross public highways use cattle guards to prevent stock from
passing down the right-of-way. The usual t}^e is an open pit
3 or 4 feet deep, 5I feet long and 3 or 4 feet wide, which is in-
closed with a frame of 12- by 12-inch timbers. A division fence
extends from the guard to the highway fence.
This form of cattle guard is dangerous if cars are derailed
on them, because the trucks will drop into the pit. Animals
also may fall in and cause a wreck. They are, however, a
convenient and cheap form to construct and are in favor on
that account.
TRACK SUPPLIES
Crossties. — The size of crossties used depends on the gauge
of the road. They may be sawed or hewed. Xarrow-gauge ties
are made 6 or 7 feet long and standard-gauge ones are 8 feet.
Squared ties are frequenth' 6 h\ 8 inches in size and pole ties
for a narrow gauge have a 3- to 5-inch face, and for a standard-
gauge a 6-inch face.
Ties are usually cut on the operation and are made both from
hardwoods and softwoods. The work is generally performed by
contract, the rate being from 10 cents to 15 cents each for making
standard ties and from 8 to 10 cents for narrow-gauge pole ties.
Hauling to the railroad costs from 2 to 4 cents per tie and load-
ing on cars from i to 2 cents.
An expert tie hacker will hew thirty-five or forty standard
ties per day, an average man twenty-five or thirty.
They are placed at 2-foot intervals, center to center, on main
lines and spurs. On the latter they wear out before they decay,
because of the frequent pulling and driving of spikes.
Crossties of special length are required for a switch. The
timbers in a set for a single switch range in length from 9 to 15
feet and the number varies ^\^th the frog; e.g., a number 8 frog
requires 47 and a number 10 frog 56. These are often sawed
out in the mill. On rough track the long switch ties may be
replaced by two standard length ties.
IL\ILROAD CONSTRUCTION
287
Steel Rails. — Rails are classified according to their weight in
pounds per lineal yard, and those of a given weight are now made
of a uniform size.
The chief parts of a rail are the head, the web, and the
flange base. The head contains 42 per cent of the metal, the
web 21 per cent and the flange 37 per cent.
WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF STANDARD RAILS 1
Rail part.
Weight per yard in pounds.
55 60 65 70
Dimensions in inches.
A
B
C and D .
E
F
C
rl
2
2\
2\
4
2^
2^
ii
H
7
16
¥
u
1
2
M
?,h
.sH
3^
4ts
4i
4T*n
4f
5
21
11
23
49
2 5
13
8
3^
T?
3Z
6¥
3l
T6
I-iiT
If^
2tV
2^
4^
28
2M
16^
IT^
li
IH-
lA
life
lii
1 From the International Library of Technology, Vol. 3sB, §57, p. 9.
Rails are sold by the long ton. Although the standard rail
length is 30 feet, shippers reserve the right to include 10 per
cent of from 24- to 28-foot rails in a given
order.
Narrow-gauge roads use 25- or 35-pound
rails; and standard-gauge 35- or 45-pound
rails on spurs, and from 45- to 70-pound
rails on main lines. The lighter rails are
an advantage on spurs because they can
be handled more readily.
The long tons of rails of different weights
required per mile of road may be found
by multiplying the weight per yard by 1 1
and dividing the result by y} Ordinarily the weight of the rail
in pounds per yard should equal the number of short tons carried
on all the drivers of the heaviest locomotive that is to be used.
Fig. 81.— A Standard Rail
Head. A, the head.
B. the web. C, the flange
base.
^ Example: weightof rail, 60 pounds per yard; then =94 tons, 640 pounds.
288 LOGGING
For example, a locomotive having a weight of 80.000 pounds
on its drivers should not be operated on less than a 40-pound
rail.
Lumber companies frequently buy or lease second-hand
rails from trunk-line railroads. The latter practice is com-
mon in some sections. \A'here trunk lines have second-hand
steel, which accumulated when a change in the weight of the
rails was made on their lines. The lease of steel at low rates
serv^es to encourage the development of the lumber industry
along the trunk line because it reduces the lumberman's invest-
ment in equipment.
The price of new rails at steel mills is about $32 per ton.
Rail Fastenings. — Either angle bars or fish plates are used to
strengthen and brace the rails at the joint.
Fig. 82. — Forms of Rail Fastenings, a, angle bars. i. fish plates.
Angle bars, which are of several patterns, are bolted on each
side of the joint with from two to three bolts in each rail head
(Fig. 82, a). They are used on main-line logging roads.
Fish plates, sometimes called "straps, "" are plain bars of steel
bolted to the rail in the same manner as the angle bars, but
usually with not more than two bolts per rail head (Fig. 82, b).
They are especially adapted for logging-spur tracks, because they
can be put on quicker than angle bars and are equally ser\dceable
for light trafhc.
Standard requirements call for 357 joints per mile.
Spikes. — Rails are fastened to the crossties by square
spikes which vary in length and size with the weight of rail.
Four spikes are driven to each tie, one on each side of each
rail.
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION
289
ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF MATERIAL REQUIRED FOR ONE
MILE OF TRACK FOR RAILS OF A GIVEN WEIGHT
Weight of rails
per yard
Number of tons
of 2240 pounds.
Pounds of spikes. .
Number of angle
bars
Number of cross-
ties
Pounds of bolts
and nuts
16
25 14
2090
357
2640
318
31-42
3110
357
2640
335
25
39.28
3520
357
2640
353
30
47.14
3520
357
2640
764
35
55- 00
3520
357
2640
1124
40
62.8s
5170
357
2640
1124
45
70.71
5170
357
2640
1 1 24
50
78.57
5170
357
2640
1171
55
86.42
5170
357
2640
1217
60
94.28
5870
357
2640
1825
Flv Rail
a a y„ ^ p n n
Ground throw
Switch Standi
Guard Eail
n nm n
jall
a STUB SWITCH
^nnnnnnnn
. Lead ^
b SPLIT SWITCH
cle =Toeof Froff
ah —Frog Heel
acb -Frog Anglo = dce
ch = Length of Frog
The Frog Number "71"= ||
Fig. 83. — ^Two Forms of Turnouts used on Logging Railroads, a, the stub
switch, b, the split switch, c, a standard frog.
290 LOGGING
Turnouts. — The device used to connect two given sets of
track is known as a turnout. It consists of three separate parts
known as the switch, the frog and the guard rails.
(i) The switch is the moveable part of the turnout and is
the point at which the two divergent tracks meet. There are
two kinds in use by loggers; {a) the stub-switch in which both
mainhne rails are cut (Fig. 83), and {h) the split switch in which
but one main-line rail is cut (Fig. 83). The latter is preferred
because of its greater safety.
(2) Frogs provide the means by which the flanges of the wheels
can cross the rail of the track when the train is entering or leaving
a switch (Fig. 83, a). Frogs are built ready for use in the track
and are made for various degrees of curvature, each size being
designated by a number. Those in most common use on stand-
ard-gauge logging roads are No. 6 (9° 32'), No. 8 (7° 09') and
No. 10 (5° 43')- The number of a given frog can be determined
by dividing the length of frog by the width of the frog heel,
the quotient being the frog number.
(3) Both on the main line and the spur, guard rails, from 10
to 15 feet long, are placed opposite the frog and serve to hold the
wheel flanges against the outer rail and thus make the wheel
flanges on the opposite ^ide of the car follow the proper rail.
The space between the head of the guard rail and that of the
main rail is 2 inches.
STEEL LAYING AND REMOVAL
Steel laying and removal may be performed either by hand
labor, or by track-laying machines. The work is done both by
contract and by day labor, although the latter is the more
common.
A crew of from twenty-one to twenty-five men, provided with
a light engine, and one or more cars carrying crossties, rails and
other supplies, will lay by hand from 1500 to 2000 feet of track,
daily, at a cost of from if to 2 cents per linear foot. Rails and
ties are carried on fiat cars each holding from fifteen to twenty
pairs of rails with the required number of ties. The cars are
pushed ahead of the locomotive to the point where construction
R.\ILROAD CONSTRUCTION 29 1
is to begin. Ties are then laid in position on the right-of-way,
and the rails placed on them. The rails are connected by angle
bars or fish plates and spiked to every third or fourth tie. This
gives the rail sufficient bracing to hold up the train which is
pushed forward a rail length and the operation repeated. In
taking up track this process is reversed. The cost is about the
same as for laying track.
Spurs are moved with such frequency that it is seldom feasible
to carry a stock of bent rails for curved portions of the track.
In nearly all cases it is practicable to bend the rails to the proper
curve as they are spiked. On main-line work a rail-bending
machine is sometimes employed.
Where spurs are being built constantly the steel-laying crew
may spend alternate days in removing steel and ties from an
abandoned road and in placing them on a new roadbed.
On main lines the expansion of the rails during warm weather
must be taken into account in order to prevent buckling. To
remedy this a space of jg of an inch in winter and jq of an inch
in summer is left between rail ends. On spurs the rails seldom
fit closely so that this factor may be disregarded.
During recent years several mechanical devices have been
invented to simplify and cheapen track laying and removal.
The machines now offered are of two general types: (i) those
that handle the rails and ties in sections or panels one rail length
long; (2) those that handle rails and ties separately. The first
method is best adapted for flat lands where there are few curves
and turnouts on the line, for where these occur the track sections
must be broken up before they can be relaid. The rails are laid
with "even joints."
An operation in Florida using a double-track locomotive crane
employs a train made up of a locomotive, four flat cars and the
track mover at the rear end. The train is backed out to the end
of the line that is to be taken up, the bolts on one end of the fish
plates are removed, and four chains are attached near the center
of a 30-foot section, which is elevated several feet by a cable on
the track mover. The latter is then revolved in an arc of 180
degrees and the section deposited on the flat car directly behind
292 LOGGING
it. The train is then run forward a rail length and the process
repeated. When ten sections, or 300 feet of track, have been
placed on a flat car, it is switched out by the locomotive and an
empty substituted. After loading four fiats with 1200 feet of
track, the train proceeds to a new line where with the track
mover ahead the process is reversed and the track laid.
The track-laying crew on this operation consists of one track
foreman, who runs the track-moving machine, one negro laborer
on the flat car to fasten and loosen chains, and three or four
negro laborers on the ground to handle the section, bolt up and
unbolt fish plates and perform similar work.
The cost of laying and taking up track is approximately
2 cents per foot. This crew, in addition to averaging 2000
feet of track daily, clears the right-of-way and cuts wood for
fuel.
To obviate the difflculty of handling turnouts and curved
sections a machine has recently been patented for handling rails
and ties separately. The machine is mounted on a flat car and
has a system of endless transfer chains which run from one end of
the car to the other and project over the forward end to the outer
edge of a cantilever, the end of which may be lowered or raised
as necessary. The transfer chains may be operated in either
direction and are used for the transport of ties from the track to
the storage space on the car, or vice versa.
A trolley system for handling the rails extends along both sides
of the machine and projects beyond the forward end for a dis-
tance sufficient to permit the loose rails to be gripped at the
center by a block and tackle suspended from the trolley.
Power for driving the various working parts of the machine is
supplied by an engine which is provided with steam by the
locomotive. It is mounted on the rear of the car.
In taking up track the machine is run out to the end of the
line. After the track is broken up the rails are gripped near the
center, hoisted off the ground, carried to the rear on a trolley
and stored along the sides of the machine. The ties are placed
on the transfer chains by laborers, and transported to the car.
When one panel has been taken up the car is moved back for
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION 293
another panel length and the operation repeated. For track
laying the process is reversed.
A device for handling rails and ties at an operation in Oregon^
consists of an 8- by lo-inch, or 9- by lo-inch donkey engine
equipped with two drums having 24-inch barrels and a capacity
of from 1200 to 1400 feet of f-inch cable, and an "A" boom
on which are hung two blocks, one in the peak and one midway
between the peak and the frame on which the equipment is
mounted.
The donkey is placed on a car and, with an empty fiat in front,
is run out on the track to be taken up. The machine can
operate only on straight stretches of track; hence, where there
are frequent curves, a set-up must be made at the head of each
curve. The maximum range of the machine is from 1000 to
1200 feet.
A cable is run from the peak block to another block which is
attached to a tree or stump about 30 feet to one side of the track.
A second cable is also run from the lower block to one on the
opposite side of the track. The lines are then dragged by a
horse to the end of the spur.
The bolts are removed from one end of the fish plates, and
the latter left on the rear end of each rail. The cable is then
attached to the rail and it is drawn forward beside the next one.
When four rails are attached they are drawn in along the side
of the empty car, and loaded with the line from the peak block.
About sixty-four ties are made into a pile, a choker placed
around them, and the pile drawn in at the side of the flat car
where they are loaded by hand. In ten hours, twelve or four-
teen men can pick up and load from 1200 to 1400 feet of track
without the assistance of a locomotive.
Track-laying crews are followed by back spikers, who complete
the spiking of the track. On main line and curves four spikes
are placed in each tie, two for each rail, but on spurs every other
tie may be spiked. The track can be taken up more readily
if it has a minimum number of spikes to pull and the life of the
tie is also increased. A crew of seven men will back-spike 1600
feet of track per day.
^ The Timberman, Portland, Oregon, August, 1912, p. 48.
294
LOGGING
The back-spiking crew is followed by the surfacing gang who
level up the roadbed with ballast, dig or open drainage ditches
alongside of the track, adjust the gauge, raise the outer rails on
curves, and perform any work necessary to put the road in a
condition for operation. On main lines a large amount of sur-
facing may be done, but on spurs it is limited.
Speed, Miles per Hour
10 15 20 23 30
M*4
t£swi^
\
V \ \
\
^v /j 1
^''■6
\*5?
P \
■^1
— \ \
— ^/t —
/;
— \ y?' ^*-
E — ^
i^Fl
\o
^^ — :
:s?.—
v^-^
V-
£Ss-^
\ — \-
\
\ \
^r \
\s \ — 1
V
\
Fig. 84. — Diagram showing the Customary Elevation of the Outer Rail, in Inches,
for Various Degrees of Curvature.
Roads which have sharp curves must have the gauge widened
to reduce the frictional resistance of the wheels against the rails.
It is customary to widen the gauge at least y g-inch for each 2^
degrees of curvature in excess of 5 degrees. For example, the
gauge would be increased §-inch for a 20-degree curve. The
extra width allowed is dependent chiefly on the width of the car
wheel treads.
The centrifugal force of a train under speed tends to force the
wheels against the outer rail. This tendency increases with
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION 295
speed and is greater on a sharp curve than on an easy one. It
is overcome by elevating the outer rail and lowering the inner
one and also by coning the tread of the wheels. The diagram
(Fig. 84) shows the customary elevation for standard-gauge
track on curves up to 40 degrees and for speed up to 30 miles
per hour.
The elevation for track of another gauge is approximately in
proportion to its relation to the standard-gauge.
On light work forty men may surface and put in condition
about one mile of road per day, at a cost of from $60 to $75
per mile, while on main lines the cost may be $600 or more per
mile.
Cost of Construction. — The cost of construction per mile on
logging railroads varies widely even in a given region. The two
factors that greatly influence it are topography and the character
of the bottom on which the road is to be built.
Construction is cheapest in the flat pine forests of the extreme
southern States, where a minimum of grading is required. On
the other hand the rough topography of some of the Pacific
Coast country often requires heavy grading work and high
trestles and the roads must be built more carefully for trans-
porting the large and heavy timber. Swamps such as are found
in the cypress region also necessitate a heavy expenditure because
the main roads have to be built on piling.
Loggers in all sections spend a maximum of from 50 to 75 cents
per thousand feet of timber hauled for the construction of the
road, from 20 to 30 per cent of which is expended on the main
line. The cost of main line logging roads, exclusive of rails and
other supplies, in the southern pine region ranges from $700 to
$2000 per mile, and on the Pacific Coast between $3000 and
$6000. Spur lines in the South cost from $250 to $600 and on
the Pacific Coast from $1500 to $2000 per mile. The cost of a
main line including new steel rails, angle bars, spikes, crossties
and supplies will exceed the figures given by from $3000 to
$3500 per mile.
Maintenance-of-Way. — Section crews are employed to keep
the road ballasted up, maintain the gauge, keep the drainage
296 LOGGING
ditches open, replace broken or decayed ties and to make any
repairs that may be required. A crew of five men under a
section foreman will keep in order six miles of main line or from
eight to twelve miles of spur road.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER XVni
Byrkit, G. ^I.: Machine for Picking up Railroad Track. The Timberman,
Portland, Oregon, August, 191 2, p. 48.
Byrne, Austin T. : Highway Construction. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
1901.
Engineer Field Manual, Parts I-VI. Professional Papers No. 29, Corps of
Engineers, U. S. Army. Third (revised) Edition, Washington, 1909.
Engineers' Handbook. Useful Information for Practical Men. Compiled
for E. I. duPont deNemours Powder Company, Wilmington, Delaware, 1908.
Gillette, H. P.: Earthwork and its Cost. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, 191 2.
: Handbook of Cost Data. Myron C. Clark Pub. Co.,
Chicago. 19 10.
Johnson, J. B.: Theory and Practise of Surveying. John Wiley and Sons,
New York. 1901.
Railro.\d Engineering, Highways, Paving, City Surveying. International
Library of Technology, Vol. 35B, Scranton, Pa.
SoMERViLLE, S. S.: Building Logging Railroads with a Pile-driver. The
Timberman, August, 1910, pp. 37-38.
Tracy, John Chnton: Plane Surveying. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
CHAPTER XIX
INCLINES
Loggers in mountainous regions often find it necessary to
raise or lower loaded log cars on grades too steep for the operation
of locomotives. These conditions may be encountered in bring-
ing timber over a ridge from one valley to another, or from a
ridge to a lower level on which the logging railroad is located,
or vice versa. Logging inclines are often used to overcome
difficulties of this character.
A common type is one in which a heavy hoisting engine and
a large drum are placed at the head of the grade and the cars
are drawn up, over a wooden or a steel rail track, by a cable with
one end attached to the front car and the other wound on the
drum.
The roadbed does not demand the heavy construction required
where trains pass, because there is no pounding action such as is
produced by a locomotive. An uneven grade is not a serious
handicap unless there are portions which are so gentle that cars
cannot be returned to the foot of the incline by gravity, in which
case a trip line must be provided which will pass from the hoisting
engine through a block at the foot of the incline and then back
to the summit. The main cable^ is usually i inch or i j inches in
diameter, and the trip line |-inch.
The wear on a cable from friction is great and to reduce this
it is customary to place wooden rollers in the center of the track
over which the main cable may run. Overhead rollers supported
on a framework are used to hold the cable down where there are
sudden rises in gradient.
Inclines should be built approximately in a straight line
because greater power is required when the direction of pull is
changed and the life of the cable is shortened when it passes
^ The most satisfactoty cable is one with 5 or 6 strands of 7 wires each.
297
298 LOGGING
over rollers at curves. The maximum efficient length for an
incline seldom exceeds 8000 feet.
When loaded cars are hauled up one slope and dropped down
on the other side, the distance on the downgrade should not
exceed the maximum for an upgrade haul.
An incline in Montana which transports mining stulls upgrade
to a flume 6600 feet distant uses 16-foot steel rails weighing 88
pounds each. The lower 5000 feet of the road has a 7 per cent
grade, and the remaining 1600 feet a 12 per cent grade. Power
for hauling up the cars is supplied b}" three boilers having about
80-horse-power capacity which furnish steam for a 50-horse-
power engine. The latter drives the drum which holds 6800 feet
of I -inch cable.
The cost of construction was as follows:
834 rails, 365 tons, at S40 per ton Si. 460.00
Grading and laying track 4,470 . 00
Spikes, 1750 pounds at 2 cents 35 00
Bolts, 3336 pounds at 3 cents 100 . 00
Fish plates, 1668 pounds at 5 cents 83 . 40
Hauling steel to tram at $20 per ton 328 . 50
Crossties, 4470 at 50 cents each 2,235 ■ °o
4 cars at S40 each 160 . 00
6,800 feet of i-inch cable, delivered at tram ZA-S ■ °o
3 boilers, drum and engine (2nd hand) installed 2,000.00
814,296.90
The average daily output is either Soo stulls 8 inches and over
in diameter or iioo 5-inch to 7-inch ones. The annual capacity
is 150.000 stulls.
The daily labor charge is as follows :
2 men at the flume dump at S3 each S6 . 00
3 car loaders at S3 each q . 00
I engineer at S4 4 . 00
I foreman 3-5°
Total S22.50
There are several devices, known as "snubbing machines/^
used for lowering logs do^\^l an inclined track.
The chief feature of the friction-brake snubbing machine is
a heavy frame, carrying a large drum on which is wound the
cable that holds the loaded cars in check. The speed of the cars
I
INCLINES 299
is regulated by means of heavy band brakes placed on flanges
attached on either side of the drum.
The haul cable is returned to the top of the incline by various
devices. One t}^e consists of a small drum placed on one end
of the main drum shaft and has a trip line from a yarding engine
wrapped two or three times around it. When the main cable is
to be wound up, the trip line is tightened by sheave pulleys, and,
as it is wound in, the main drum is rotated.
Another method used is to employ a donkey engine equipped
with a large drum and i|-inch cable with the cars attached to
the free end. The speed is controlled largely through the car
brakes supplemented by friction brakes on the drum. Empties
are brought to the head of the incline by winding in the main
cable.
On some inclines the empties are brought up by a gravity
plane. The snubbing device consists of a large drum equipped
with friction brakes and provided with a cable which is passed
three or four times around the drum to prevent slipping. A
single track provided with an automatic switch at a point midway
between the head and foot of the incline is used.
In operation loaded cars are attached to the cable at the
head and empty cars at the base. The loaded cars proceed
down by gravity, passing the empties on the midway switch.
When a loaded car reaches the base the cable is removed and
attached to an empty and another loaded car attached at the
upper end and the trip repeated.
Hydraulic machines for controlling the speed of cars lowered
on inclines are used to some extent in the Northwest.
A device^ of this character is shown in Fig. 85, a and h.
The water cylinders (A') are closed at both ends and are con-
nected with the pipe (L) which has a plug valve (M) near the
middle. When (M) is closed the water is confined and holds the
pistons (H) rigidly in place. Opening the valve (M) allows
the water to pass alternately from one end of the cylinder to the
other, the speed being governed by the extent to which the valve
is opened. The controlling levers are so arranged that the valves
^ See The Timberman, Portland, Oregon, October, 1909, p. 51.
^oo
LOGGING
(M) can only be opened and closed gradually, thus avoiding
heavy shocks on the cable. In addition to the hydraulic cylinder
brakes the machine is equipped with emergenc}' brake bands and
wooden friction blocks. The cable and empty cars are returned
to the head of the incline by an auxiliary steam-driven engine.
A snubbing device of the above character was operated on a
4500-foot incline on which there was a difference of 1300 feet
elevation. The grade on a portion of the road was 50 per cent
and averaged 30 per cent for the entire distance.
1 K ^H
Fig. 85. — A Hydraulic Snubbing [Machine a, side view. b. top view.
One car holding 6000 feet, log scale, a total weight of about
20 tons, was lowered with a i-inch plow steel cable. A greater
nimiber of cars could have been handled by increasing the size
of the cable, but since the daily requirements were only 30,000
feet, log scale, this was unnecessary.
In a western operation, which had a 20 per cent grade near
the end of its logging railroad, the problem of lowering cars was
solved in the following manner : A track was built up the slope
from the main line to a bench on which a yarding engine was
INCLINES
301
placed both for skidding logs and loading cars. A f-inch cable
was laid along the track from the bottom of the incline to the top
where it was passed through a block in the rear of the yarding
engine and then carried down the track to the starting point.
One end of the cable was attached to the forward end of the
empty cars, and the other end to the drawhead on a locomotive
standing on a parallel track beside the empty cars. The eleva-
tion of the cars was accomplished by running the locomotive on
the main hne toward the mill which hauled the empty cars from
the parallel track to the main incline track and then to the sum-
mit. Signals for starting and stopping were given by blasts on
the whistles of the locomotive and the yarding engine. The
speed of descending cars was controlled by the locomotive as it
slowly backed toward the base of the hill.
Safety switches were installed at both the top and bottom of
the incline so that the cars passing up or do^\^l could be shunted
off the main track onto a siding before they would meet other
cars orthe locomotive.
Two loaded cars were handled at one time, the locomotive
placing two empties at the head of the incline and then taking
the loaded cars to the mill. This arrangement resulted in a
minimum loss of time for the train crews.
Dudley. — Where it is not possible to build a straight track,
and the length of incHne exceeds i| miles, a special form of
traction device, called a "Dudley" or "Dudler," is used. It is
made to operate, loaded, on ascending or descending grades and
either to drag logs over the ties or to haul them on cars.
Dudleys are often built in the shop of the lumber company.
A type used on a western operation has an 18-inch steel ''T"
beam frame, 36 feet long mounted on two sets of double trucks,
with an 8-foot gauge. The boiler and the link-motion 14 by 14-
inch engines are mounted over one of the sets of double trucks,
and a water tank is placed over the other set.
The traction device consists of a drum or g}'psy wheel 6 feet in
diameter with a 12-inch face set midway of the frame and 2 feet
inside one of the rails. Underneath the frame at each end an
open sheave is placed in line with the gjpsy wheel and serves
302 LOGGING
to receive or discharge a i^-inch steel driving cable and provides
a straight lead on to the main drum.
The cable runs through one of the open sheaves on the end
of the frame, passes mider and three times around the g>psy
wheel, then passes out from under the drum through the other
open sheave. The lead sheaves hold the cable just 2 feet inside
of the rail. On curves the cable is held in place by wooden pegs
placed far enough apart to clear the sheaves. The base of the
latter is level with the rail head and when the cable has been
picked up and has passed around the drum, the opposite sheave
deposits it again in its proper position on the ground. The cable
is stretched tight and is fastened to stumps or other rigid sup-
ports at the head and base of the incline. The remaining 6 feet
between the cable and the other rail is used as a runway for logs
and is saddled out midway between the wire and the rail to form
a channel.
When a standard-guage track is used there is not sufficient
room between the rails for both the cable and the logs. The
Dudley is then equipped with two g}'psy wheels and two cables,
one of which operates just outside of each rail. The cable is
prevented from binding on curves by differential gears which
permit the drums to travel at different speeds when rounding
curves.
On roads of this character care must be taken to avoid sudden
changes of gradient, otherwise the cable when at rest will not
remain in contact with the cross skids.
When the Dudley is to be used to drag the logs the roadbed
is made of cross skids from 24 to 36 inches in diameter and 10
or 12 feet long, placed 6 or 8 feet apart, center to center, and on
these 40-pound rails are laid.
As the large g^psy wheel revolves in one direction or the other
the Dudley is pulled forward or backward, the cable remaining
stationary.
The logs are made up into turns connected by means of
grabs. On a road in Oregon, 14,000 feet long, having grades
ranging from 5 to 20 per cent a machine of this t}npe hauled
from 15 to 20 logs (25,000 to 30,000 feet) per turn. The speed
INCLINES 303
attained both empty and loaded was approximately 4 miles per
hour.
The cost of operation was 30 cents per thousand feet, log scale,
for labor and skid oil, and 20 cents per thousand feet for cable,
making a total cost of 50 cents exclusive of the value of equip-
ment.
Machines of a somewhat different type but operating on the
same general principle are made for hauhng log cars. The track
is made standard-gauge and the gypsy wheel is placed in the
center of the frame, and the cable midway between the rails.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER XIX
Clark, A. \V.: Overcoming Grades too Steep for Geared Locomotives. The
Timberman, Portland, Oregon, August, 1909, p. 34.
MacLafferty, T. H.: Handling Logging Trains on E.xcessive Grades. The
Timberman, July, 1911, p. 44.
Nestos, R. R.: Aerial Snubbing Device. The Timberman, August, 191 2,
p. 49-
Potter, E. O.: Utilization of the Cable Locomotive. The Timberman,
August, 1909, p. 34.
Wentworth, G. K.: Lowering Logs on a 3200-foot Incline. The Timberman,
August, 1909, p. 54.
Williams, Asa S.: Logging by Steam. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. VI, pp. 19-21.
CHAPTER XX
MOTIVE POWER AND ROLLING STOCK
A. LOCOMOTIVES
There are two general t}-pes of locomotives; namely, rod
and geared.
Rod Loco?notives. — These have the power transmitted from
the cylinders to the drivers by means of a connecting rod. They
have a longer wheel-base than geared locomotives, consequently
they cannot take as sharp curves, but are the best t}pe for a
smooth, well-maintained road of easy grade, and because of their
speed are especially serviceable for main-line engines when the
haul exceeds 7 or 8 miles.
Those used for logging purposes range in weight from 20 to
115 tons. Saddle-tank locomotives of from 20 to 35 tons' weight
are often used on spur tracks, and are more efficient for their
size than t^-pes with a tender because there is less dead weight
for the engine to carry. For main-line work locomotives of 40
tons or more are in general use.
A special form of rod locomotive, known as the Mallet Arti-
culated Locomotive, has recently come into use on logging roads
that have sharp curves. The essential features are two sets of
engines mounted under the boiler, each connected to independent
groups of drivers. The rear engine is fLxed rigidly to the boiler
in the same manner as for the regular pattern of rod locomotive.
The forward engine and driving wheels are so attached to the
boiler that the truck may have a lateral motion when taking
curves. This truck is connected to the rear engine by means
of a radial draw-bar and steam is transmitted to the cylinders
on the front truck through an articulated pipe. The forward
pony truck is pivoted and may swing from side to side, inde-
pendent of the trucks bearing the engines. The cylinders are
334
MOTIVE POWER AND ROLLING STOCK 305
single or compound expansion, and the exhaust steam of the
rear engine is used in the cyhnders of the forward engine, thus
effecting a saving in fuel.
The advantages of this tj-pe of engine are that the wheel base
is materially shortened by having two separate sets of drivers
which permit the use of a heavy rod locomotive on a road having
curves that are too shar|3 for the regular type of rod engine of
the same weight; and it is so constructed that live steam may
be used in the cylinders of both engines to secure greater power
to start loads, which increases the hauling power of the loco-
motive in comparison with that of an ordinar}- rod engine of the
same weight, since an engine can keep in motion a greater load
than it can start. Another feature claimed for this locomotive
is that the drivers slip less than on other t}^es of rod engines
because the forward engine depends on the rear one for steam,
and should the drivers connected to the latter slip, the exhaust
would fill the |e,ed pipe^f -the forward engine f asteir than it could
be relieved and -the resulting' back pressure on the high-pressure
piston would reduce the speed and prevent further slipping.
Locomotives of this t>pe, ranging in weight from 81 to 121
tons, are in use^qn logging roads in the Pacific Northwest. The
minimum weight in which they are built is 50 tons. One weigh-
ing 121 tons is in operation on the Pacific Coast on a road having
35-degree curves and 8 per cent grades.^
Geared Locomotives. — The first geared locomotive was con-
structed about 1885 by E. E. Shay, a INIichigan logger, and this
locomotive, with some modifications and improvements, is in
extensive use to-day. Several forms of geared locomotives other
than the Shay are now on the market.
The objects sought in geared locomotives are to secure a
maximum amount of tractive force with a minimum total weight,
a short truck base that will enable the engine to take sharp curves
with ease, and a form of truck that will adjust itself readily to
an uneven track. These ends are accomplished by making every
wheel under the engine and tender a driving wheel; by trans-
mitting power to the driving wheels through a series of bevel
^ The Timberman, August, 1910, p. 63.
3o6
LOGGING
gears that bear a relation to each other of from 2 to i or from 25-
to I ; and by the use of swivel trucks on which the drivers are
arranged in pairs and connected, one with another, by means of
an articulated driving rod. The weight is distributed over a
long wheel base which permits the use of a smaller rail, fewer
ties, lighter bridges and a poorer track than for a rod locomotive
of the same weight.
On poor track where a speed of from 6 to 12 miles per hour,
only, is possible, geared locomotives are preferable to rod because
they have large fire boxes, short stroke engines, and a high piston
F^G. 86. — A Climax Geared Locomotive.
speed. The slow cylinder speed of rod engines causes defective
draft on grades.
There are two t}^es of geared locomotives, namely, the center
shaft and the side shaft.
(i) Center shaft. There are several patterns on the market,
the ones most commonly used being the Climax and the Heisler.
The Climax is mounted either on two or three four-wheel
swivel trucks. When two trucks are used, one is placed under
the forward and one under the rear end of the locomotive.
When three trucks are used, two are placed under the engine
proper and one under the tender. The boiler is of the horizontal
locomotive t>TDe, mounted on a steel channel frame, reinforced
MOTIVE POWER AND ROLLING STOCK 307
with truss rods. Two single- cylinder engines are attached to
the frame, one on each side of the boiler, and transmit the power
directly to a heavy crank shaft, placed under the boiler and at
right angles to it. This shaft is held in position by a frame fixed
to the boiler, and power from the shaft is transmitted by gearing
to a central articulated line shaft which passes to the forward
and rear trucks and runs on bearings on top of each truck axle.
Pinions fitted on this shaft mesh into gears on each axle and
thus transmit power to the driving wheels.
Locomotives of this class are built in weights ranging from
18 to 75 tons. Those of from 18 to 60 tons' weight have eight
drivers and those of from 65 to 75 tons weight have twelve
drivers.
A Climax locomotive with an upright engine and a ''T"
boiler is built in 15- and 18-ton weights. The frame of heavy
timbers is supported at each end by a pair of swivel trucks.
Two vertical high-speed, double-acting engines are located in the
center of the main frame and are directly connected to a shaft
which carries two spur gears of different sizes, which mesh into
two main gears on the center driving shaft. These provide a
high or low speed as required. A center shaft transmits power
to the driving wheels in the same manner as the horizontal style
of locomotive previously described. This locomotive is used on
stringer and light steel roads.
The Heisler locomotive is built in weights ranging from 18
to 75 tons. The locomotive and tender are carried on a heavy
steel frame mounted on two pairs of swivel trucks, one set being
placed under the forward end of the locomotive and the other
under the tender.
Power is furnished by two single-cylinder engines attached to
the frame one on each side of the boiler. Each is inclined at an
angle of 45 degrees from the vertical. The reciprocating parts
of the engine are connected directly to a central single-throw,
articulated driving shaft.
Spur wheels are fitted to the center of the forward and the
rear axles and pinions attached to each end of the driving shaft
mesh into them. The spur wheels and pinions are enclosed in
3o8
LOGGING
a tight case which is designed to prevent the entrance of grit and
other foreign substances.
Heisler locomotives of 35 tons weight cost about S7000 and
those of 55 tons weight cost about $9000.
(2) Side Shaft. — The Shay locomotive is the only one of
this t}^e on the market. It is built in weights ranging from 13
to 150 tons.
The frame is made of heavy^ steel '"I" beams braced with
trusses, and is supported on from two to four pairs of four-wheel
Fig. 87. — A Heisler Geared Locomotive.
swivel trucks. Locomotives weighing 55 tons and less have two
trucks; those from 65 to 105 tons, inclusive, three trucks; and
the 1 50- ton locomotives, four trucks. The additional trucks in
the two latter are used to carry the tender.
The boiler is of the horizontal locomotive t}-pe with extra
large fire box and steam space. The engines are of the vertical
t}pe and are attached to the boiler plate on the right-hand side
just in front of the cab. Locomotives of from 13 to 20 tons
weight are equipped with two cylinders, and those of greater
MOTIVE POWER AND ROLLING STOCK
309
weight with three cyhnders, placed side by side and directly
connected, 120 degrees apart, to a driving rod which is supported
on a heavy bearing attached to the boiler. The driving rod is
broken both with universal joints and also with two slip joints
to permit either an increase, or a decrease, in the length when
passing around curves.
The right-hand wheels on each truck are fitted with gear rims
into which mesh the pinions which furnish the driving power
for the locomotive.
A 50-ton Shay locomotive, f.o.b. factory, costs about .$7500.
Fig.
■A Shay Geared Locomofive.
HAULING ABILITY OF LOCOMOTIVES
The hauling ability of a given locomotive depends largely on
(i) the tractive force, (2) the resistance of the load to gravity,
and (3) the frictional resistance.
Tractive Force. — The tractive force of a locomotive, some-
times improperly called the "draw-bar pull," is the power
possessed by a locomotive for pulling a train, including the weight
of the locomotive itself. If one end of a rope is passed over a
pulley and fastened to a weight hanging in a pit, and the other
end is attached to a locomotive running on a straight level track
without regard to speed, the tractive force of the locomotive will
be represented approximately by the amount of weight the
locomotive can lift. Tractive force increases in direct propor-
tion to the area of piston heads, length of stroke and steam
pressure in the cylinders, and decreases directly as the diameter
of the driving wheels increases.
3IO LOGGING
Tractive force is dependent on the weight of the locomotive
on its driving wheels because it adheres to the rail only by the
friction developed between these wheels and the rail head, and
the resistance to slipping increases with the weight on the driving
wheels. The weight on wheels other than drivers has no effect
on the tractive force. If the engine is too light in proportion
to its power it will be unable to hold itself to the rail and exert a
strong pull, while on the other hand if the weight of the locomo-
tive is too great in comparison to its power, it will not haul
maximum loads because of the excess weight in itself that must
be moved. In industrial locomotives the economical ratio
between the weight on the drivers and the tractive force
ranges from 4j to i to 5 to i; i.e., the tractive force in pounds
is from 2t, per cent to 20 per cent of the total weight on the
drivers.
The usual formula employed for determining the tractive force
of single-expansion rod locomotives with a piston speed not
exceeding 200 feet per minute is as follows:
„ d'-X LX .Ssp
^^ D '
when T represents the tractive force,
d represents the diameter of the cylinder in inches,
L represents the length of piston stroke in inches,
.85 p represents 85 per cent of the boiler pressure,^
D represents the diameter of the driving wheel in inches.
As the speed increases the tractive force decreases because the
mean effective pressure in the cylinders falls and friction also
increases.
Resistance to Gravity. — The resistance to gravity increases in
exact proportion to the grade and is always 20 pounds per ton of
2000 pounds for each i per cent rise in grade; e.g., for a 0.5 per
cent grade it is 10 pounds per ton and for a 4 per cent grade it
is 80 pounds per ton.
^ This has been found by practical test to be the average effective pressure in
the cylinder.
MOTIVE POWER AND ROLLING STOCK 311
Resistance due to Friction. — The resistance due to friction
varies with the character and condition of the roadbed and the
rolling stock.
The resistance of the flange friction of wooden rails is about
twice that of steel rails. Poorly laid or crooked rails and over-
loading increase the rolling friction, which is also greater in cold
weather than in warm and greater for empty cars than for
loaded ones.
Logging cars of good construction, and with well-oiled bearings
should have a frictional resistance of from 12 to 20 pounds per
ton of weight handled.
The frictional resistance on curves is extremely variable be-
cause it is governed by numerous factors, among which are the
degree of curvature, length of the wheel base of locomotives and
cars, elevation of the outer rail, speed, condition of rolling stock
and track, length of train, and length of the curved section.
Frictional resistance is partially overcome by increasing the
width of track on curves ^^g -inch for each 2^ degrees of curvature,
and also by coning the face of the car wheels so that the greatest
diameter is next the flange. When crowded against the rail the
outer wheels will then travel farther, per revolution of the axle,
than those on the inner side of the curve. Friction is also de-
veloped, because the rigid attachment of the axles to the truck
frame does not permit them to assume a radial position with
reference to the curve. On a 6-driver rod locomotive the long
wheel base is partially overcome by making the center drivers
flangeless. On very sharp curves it is customary to lay extra
rails inside of the outer rail and outside of the inner rail to pro-
vide a support for the flangeless drivers. In determining the
amount of frictional resistance due to curves it is the general
rule to assume the resistance for standard gauge to be f pound
per ton per degree. If the wheel base is the same, curve resist-
ance in other gauges is about in proportion to the relation of
the gauges.
Calculation of Hauling Capacity. — The hauling capacity of a
locomotive in tons of 2000 pounds is determined by dividing
the tractive force of the locomotive by the sum of the resistance
3 I 2 LOGGING
due to gravity, rolling friction, and curve resistance, and then
deducting from this result the weight of the locomotive and ten-
der. This gives the tonnage the locomotive can haul, including
the weight of the cars.
The estimated hauling capacity of locomotives of given weights
and tx'pes can usually be found in the catalogues of the manu-
facturers.
The following figures were secured from logging operations.
On a 24-degree curve and on a 3.5 per cent grade, two 40- ton
Shay engines have hauled six loaded fiat cars^ containing 42,000
feet board measure, while the same locomotives have hauled
eleven cars, 77.000 feet, over 32-degree curves and a 3 per cent
grade. A 60-ton Shay on the same operation hauled live cars,
35,000 board feet, over a road having 24-degree curves and 3.5
per cent grades; and eight or nine cars, of 7000 feet capacity
each, over a 32-degree curve and a 3 per cent grade. A 18-ton
Shay, operated on a road four miles long and having grades
ranging from o to 8 per cent, and with one 47-degree curve
handled daily 150,000 board feet.- A 50-ton saddle-tank, rod
locomotive operated on a road having maximum grades of 2 per
cent and curves of 30 degrees has handled eight loaded skeleton
cars with safety.
FUEL FOR LOCOMOTIVES.
The fuel used on logging locomotives may be wood, coal, or
crude petroleum.
Wood is frequently used in regions where coal and oil are
expensive; because of heavy transportation charges, however,
it has several disadvantages.
(i) There is danger from forest fires during the dry season
because sparks are thrown for long distances. A great percent-
age of the forest fires on logging operations start along the
railroad.
(2) There is a large bulk of material to be handled. It
requires twice the amount of wood as compared to average
^ Length 41 feet; weight of each car 27,000 pounds.
^ The Timberman, September, 19 10.
MOTIVE POWER AND ROLLING STOCK 313
bituminous coal to secure equal steaming results, and the space
occupied by the fuel on the tender is about five times as great.
Train crews spend too much time daily in taking on wood which
involves loss both for the train crew and locomotive.
(3) When pitchy woods are used it is impossible to maintain
an even heat, because the resinous matters are driven off first
and the burning gas creates an intense heat for a short period,
but before the wood has been consumed sufficiently to permit a
new supply to be fed into the fire box, the temperature falls
markedly. This alternate rising and falling of temperature
causes a constant contraction and expansion of the fire box and
tube metal and the latter soon become leaky.
(4) A skillful fireman is required to handle a wood fire so that
a sufficient amount of steam may be available at all times,
especially on heavy grades.
Bituminous coal is preferred to wood on logging roads where
it can be secured at a reasonable price, although it is fully as
dangerous from the standpoint of forest fires. It is greatly
preferred by firemen because the labor is not so exhausting and
a more even fire can be maintained.
Fuel oil has met with much favor where it can be secured at
a cost not greatly in excess of other kinds of fuel.
It has the following advantages over wood and coal :
(i) The danger from forest fires is eliminated.
(2) The cost of handling is reduced to a minimum, because
the oil may be pumped into the storage tanks on the tender and
a sufficient supply carried to run for at least one-half day. The
added time saved in taking on fuel as compared to wood is an
important item during the course of a month. It is easier to
transport oil in supply tanks than it is to handle an equal fuel
value in wood or coal.
(3) A saving in fuel and water is effected on heavy grades
and the hauling ability increased because the steam pressure
can be held at a desired point by increasing the oil feed under
the boilers. It is not possible to do this with wood or coal, since
merely opening and closing the fire box has a marked efifect on
the efficiency of the locomotive under strained conditions.
314 LOGGING
(4) A man can learn to lire an oii-burning locomotive in a
few days because no especial skill is required. A saving in wages
is therefore effected.
The relative \-alue of the three kinds of fuel is approximately
as follows:
One ton of good-grade bituminous coal is equivalent to one
and one-half cords of oak wood, or from two to two and one-
half cords of softwood, and from 130 to 190 gallons of crude
petroleum.^
The choice between the different classes of fuel is made either
on the basis of forest fire danger or on the relative cost. Some
roads passing through forested regions use oil during the danger
season and coal during other periods.
The amount of fuel consumed daily by a logging locomotive
is extremely variable, depending on the mileage traveled, the
loads hauled, the number of heavy grades traversed, and the
efhciency of the fireman. A 45-ton Shay on a western operation
averaged nine barrels of fuel oil dail}- at a cost of S8.60. A 37-
ton Shay in the same region burned about five cords of softwood
at a cost of $12.50. A 54-ton rod engine on a southern pine
operation averaged four cords of pine knots per day, and a 55-
ton Shay on the same operation burned from two to two and
one-half tons of bituminous coal.
The average daily expense for oil, waste, etc., ranges from
Si. 50 to S2.00.
WATER
Provision is made for watering locomotives either at the mill
or at some convenient point along the railroad. Water may be
supplied from storage tanks, by gravity pipe lines from streams,
or taken direct from the streams by an injector. The amount
of water rec|uired is a variable factor, depending on the amount
of work performed by the engine and the efficiency of the fireman.
Trautwine says that between six and seven pounds of water
^ Tests on the Boston and Elaine, in 1903, showed that from 130 to 140 gallons
of crude petroleum were equal to a short ton of Pennsylvania bituminous coal. In
1910 the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad in the Adirondacks found
that from 170 to 190 gallons of crude oil were equal to one ton of bituminous coal.
MOTIVE POWER AND ROLLING STOCK 315
are evaporated for each pound of average grade coal that is
consumed. On a basis of 6§ pounds of water (0.8 gallons) per
pound of coal, 1600 gallons will be required for each ton of coal,
or 800 gallons for each cord of wood consumed. Engines which
''blow-off" at frequent intervals will require more water than
the amount mentioned.
B. CARS
Logging cars are subject to severe usage and are built chiefly
with wooden frames so that repairs can be made at the loggers'
machine shop.
NARROW GAUGE
When light rails are employed, the same type of car as de-
scribed for the stringer-road (page 247) is often used. When a
;^>,- or 40-pound rail is in use a heavier car is desirable. The main
features are similar to the 8-wheel stringer-road truck mentioned,
but they are built heavier to secure a capacity of from 1500 to
3000 feet, log scale.
BROAD GAUGE
Three types of cars are in use on broad gauge roads, namely,
flat cars, skeleton cars, and trucks.
Flat Cars. — These are seldom purchased by loggers but are
used where the logs are hauled for a portion of the distance over
a trunk line road. The latter usually furnishes the cars, keeps
them in repair, and provides motive power when the cars are on
its line. Payment for this service is made on the basis of the
number of cars hauled, the number of thousand feet of logs
handled, or a flat rate per train-mile.
Logging flat cars may have special rails laid on the car floor
on which log loaders travel, and also wooden or metal bunks to
raise the logs off the car floor.
Standard 40-foot flat cars fully equipped cost from $850
to $925.
Logs are held on flat cars by stakes or chains.
(i) Short Stakes. — These are made near the loading place
by a stake cutter, and are inserted in the stake pockets on the
3l6 LOGGING
car. They are usually thrown away at the unloading point.
If bunk loads only are hauled and the logs do not occupy the
entire floor of the car, the bunks are equipped with adjustable
"chock blocks," or dogs, which are fitted to the bunk close to
the log; or rough blocks or small logs may be inserted between
the logs and the stakes to make the load solid. Where a top
load is put on a car, the logs wedge between those on the car
floor and make a compact load.
(2) Patent Drop Stakes. — These project from 2 to 3 feet
above the car floor and are equipped with safety trip devices for
use in unloading. The logs are seldom bound with chains unless
the load is built high.
(3) Long Stakes. — For carrying high loads cars are often
equipped with stakes from 5 to 6 feet long, which are cut from
saplings or made from sawed material. They are inserted in the
stake pockets, and after the greater part of the load has been
placed in position the stakes on the opposite sides of the car are
bound together with heavy wire, cable, or with chains to prevent
the load from spreading at the top. The remainder of the load
is then placed on top of the binders. Sapling stakes with wire
binds are used where it is not feasible to return stakes and bind-
ing material to the forest for further use.
(4) Chains. — Logs may also be made secure with binder
chains. After the main body of the load has been placed on the
car, either a chain is passed around each end of the load, or one
chain may be passed around the center. In the latter case
corner bind chains are used if the car is not provided with stakes.
Each set consists of two chains, one of which is fastened near the
center, and the other to the outer end of the bunk. The first
chain is about 2 feet long and the free end terminates in a ring,
3 or 4 inches in diameter. The second chain is several feet long
and its free end terminates in a grab hook. When the first tier
of logs is loaded on the car, the corner binds are adjusted on
the two outside logs. This is accompHshed by placing the long
chain over the log, passing the grab hook and chain through the
ring in the short chain, drawing the long chain taut and locking
it at the ring with the grab hook. The top load is then placed
MOTIVE POWER AND ROLLING STOCK
317
and if necessary a center bind placed around the entire load, and
one or more logs placed on top of the chain to tighten it.
Flat cars are usually from 24 to 41 feet long. Those 36 feet
and over in length will carry a double load if the logs do not
exceed 18 feet in length. The average car load, for medium-
sized logs, is from 4000 to 6000 feet, with a maximum of about
10,000 feet, log scale.
Skeleton Cars. — This type of car consists of two pairs of
4-wheel trucks joined together by a heavy bolster of oak or pine.
A heavy bunk from 8| to 10 feet long is placed directly over each
pair of trucks. Bunks are approximately 11 feet apart on a
standard length car, but are also built for long logs with bunk
centers up to 33 feet apart.
FiG.
A Skeleton Log Car. A type common in the southern pine forests.
Skeleton car bunks are equipped with a variety of stakes and
"chocks" for preventing the bottom tier of logs from rolling off.
One end of each bunk is often provided with bunk spikes,
bolted to or driven into the wood while the other end is equipped
with a chock or dog, which projects above the bunk when in use,
but which may be dropped below the bunk level by means of a
rod operated from the opposite side when the car is ready to
unload. The load is often fastened with a single ''top bind"
chain passed around the center of the load.
Cars are frequently equipped with patent drop stakes, which
project from 18 to 24 inches above the bunk and are held in
place by means of chains or bands, which may be loosened by
a rod manipulated on the opposite side of the car. Drop stakes
3l8 LOGGING
are useful where small and medium-sized logs are handled.
They also obviate the use of binding chains. Some operators
use round stakes without attachments.
In handling small and medium-sized logs the loads are some-
times built up square and the logs are held by several sets of
binding chains and often by a top bind chain. Logs are loaded
in this manner by power loaders and a falsework is used on the
side opj>osite the skid way, against which the loads can be built
and held in position until binding chains can be placed.
Skeleton cars are equipped either with hand or air brakes,
and usually with pin couplers. They range in weight from
6900 to 18,500 pounds each and have a rated carrying capacity
of from 30.000 to 80,000 pounds. They will carry from 1600 to
10,000 feet, log scale. The heavier-weight cars are employed
exclusively for the heavy timber of the Pacific Coast.
Skeleton cars combine lightness wdth a maximum carrying
capacity, are reasonable in initial cost, and are the cheapest
form of car to maintain.
Trucks. — These are used on the Pacific Coast and are espe-
cially adapted for long logs.
They consist of two pairs of wheels on which is mounted a
steel frame. A steel or wood swivel bunk, 9 or 10 feet long, is
mounted on the frame above and midway between the pairs of
wheels. The bunk is armed either with steel spikes or with a
long sharp strip of steel which prevents the logs from slipping
forward or backward.
Trucks are equipped with hand or air brakes; pin or auto-
matic couplers; patent stakes or "chock blocks" for holding
the bunk load in place; and chains for binding the load. They
are built in a high and a low t}'pe. the former carrying the heav-
ier loads. They are in common use on roads operated by
loggers, but are seldom operated on trunk lines since they are
averse to handhng them.
Logs of approximately equal lengths are selected for a given
load, and a truck is required under each end of the logs which
are chained to the bunks. The rear truck under one log and
the forward truck under the following log are coupled together.
MOTIVE POWER AND ROLLING STOCK 319
The weight of the logs may be sufficient to hold them firmly on
the bunk without the use of chains; however, if the train is long
and the strain is severe, chains are used. Where the cars are
equipped with air brakes, extension air-brake hose is adjusted
under the log or logs between the two trucks, and is held in
place by chain or rope attachments placed around one of the
logs.
Trucks weigh from 10,600 to 13,500 pounds each and have a
rated carrying capacity of from 50,000 to 75,000 pounds.
Fig. 90. — A Log Truck of the Type used in the Pacific Coast Forests.
In practice low trucks seldom carry more than 5000 feet and
high trucks 7500 feet, log scale.
ROLLING STOCK AND MOTIVE POWER EQUIPMENT
The number of logging cars required on a given operation is
dependent on
(i) The amount of timber handled daily
(2) Capacity of the individual cars.
(3) The average number of cars hauled per train load.
(4) Manner of loading and handling cars in the woods. When
loading is concentrated in one or a few places, fewer cars are
required than where loading is done at various points.
(5) Manner of handling cars at the destination. If the train
crew unloads the cars on arrival at destination, the number of
cars required is less than where the cars are left to be unloaded
while the engine returns to the woods for another train load.
(6) The distance that the cars must be hauled. On long
hauls a maximum number of cars are on the road to or from the
320 LOGGING
mill; while on a short haul the number is less, because of the
short time required to make a round trip. The requirements
for a large operation having an 8- or lo-mile haul cannot be met
unless the number of log cars available is equal to twice the
number of loaded cars hauled daily.
The equipment used by a large white-pine logging company
operating 14 miles of narrow-gauge main-line and from 2 to 4
miles of spurs, and delivering daily from 200,000 to 210,000 feet,
log scale, at the mill was as follows:
154 Skeleton logging cars (24 feet long, bunks 8 feet wide, 10 feet center to
center), 3000 feet, log scale, capacity.
2 Cabooses (i for the main line and i for the construction train).
2 Box cars for hauling supplies to camp.
2 Flat cars for the construction train.
2 Water tank cars for hauhng the camp water supply.
Thirty-five cars were loaded at skidways each morning and
each afternoon, making a total of seventy cars daily. The re-
mainder were on the road or in the repair shop.
Three locomotives only were employed on this road, two for
hauling and one for road construction work. One of them, a
60-ton rod engine, hauled only en the main line, while a 55-ton
Shay geared locomotive hauled on the spurs and pulled a train
for 7 miles on the main line each morning and night. A 35-ton
Shay was used exclusively for construction work and for hauhng
water for the camp.
A logger in the Missouri shortleaf pine region, operating 35 miles
of standard-gauge main line and from 15 to 20 miles of spurs, used
the following equipment to handle 125,000 feet daily (90 cars)
316 Skeleton log cars, (20 feet long; bunks 10 feet wide, 12 feet center to center).
2 Cabooses, (i for the main line and i for the loading crew).
2 Tank cars for hauhng water for the camp.
2 Flat cars (i for the construction crew and i for the main-line train).
I Mule car for transporting the loading-crew animals.
Seven rod locomotives of the following weights were used:
1 24-ton
1 36-ton
1 38-ton
2 44-ton
1 48-ton
1 50-ton
MOTIVE POWER AND ROLLING STOCK 321
Five engines were in constant use in hauling on the main line
and spurs; one locomotive was used by the loading crew and
construction train; and one was held in reserve.
An Alabama longleaf-pine operation with 24 miles of main
line, and from 5 to 6 miles of spur used fifty-three forty-foot flat
cars to haul daily from twenty-five to thirty cars of logs (70,000
to 90,000 feet, log scale). These cars had a rated capacity of
60,000 pounds and each carried from 2500 to 3500 feet, log scale.
The logs which were hauled 6 miles over a trunk-line rail-
road, were loaded on cars provided and kept in repair by the
trunk-lirie railroad which also furnished one 65-ton rod engine
for use on its track.
The logging company provided one 54-ton rod, one 40-ton
rod, and three Shay locomotives of the following weights, 28,
32, and 55 tons. The rod engines were used on the 18 miles of
main-Hne logging road, while the 32- and 55-ton Shays were used
on the spurs, and the 28-ton Shay on the construction train.
On a western operation where 200,000 feet were hauled daily
over a 3-mile main line with a 5 per cent grade and many curves,
a 55-ton Heisler was used on the main line and a 35-ton Heisler
on the 3I miles of spurs. Forty 40-foot flat cars were required
to handle the output.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER XX
Eaele, Robert T.: Adaptability of the GjT^sy Locomotive for Logging Pur-
poses. The Timberman, Portland, Oregon, August, 1910, pp. 34-35.
Engineer Field Manual, Parts I-VI. Professional Papers, No. 29. Corps
of Engineers, U. S. Army. Third (revised) Edition, Washington, D. C, 1909,
PP- 307-325-
Evans, W. P.: The Mallet Locomotive in the Field of Logging Operations.
The Timberman, August, 1910, pp. 61-64.
Ives, J. F.: Utilization of Compressed Air on Logging Trucks. The Timber-
man, August, 1910, p. 60.
Ives, J. F.: Fuel Oil as a Substitute for Wood and Coal in Logging. The
Timberman, August, 1909, p. 39.
Harp, C. A.: The Gasoline Locomotive and its Availability for Logging Roads.
The Timberman, August, 19 10, pp. 57-58.
Russell, C. W.: Utihzation of Air on Logging Trucks. The Timberman,
August, 1910, p. 58.
Turney, Harry: Adjustable Air-brake Equipment for the Control of De-
tached Trucks. The Timberman, August, 1912, p. 54.
CHAPTER XXI
LOADING AND UNLOADING CARS
LOADING CARS
The Crosshaid. — One of the early methods of loading cars
was by means of the crosshaul (page 141). A crew of five men
and a team were required and the daily output did not exceed
40,000 feet. On large operations this method is too slow, al-
Pholo^rapk by C. S. Jttdd.
Fig. 91. ^Loading Log Cars with the Crosshaul. Missouri.
though it is still employed by loggers who have a small daily
output. The cost of loading by this method ranges from 25
to 35 cents per thousand feet.
Power Loaders. — One of the first successful power loaders
was put on the market in 1885 and since that time many forms
have been brought out, which differ in the manner of locomo-
LOADING AND UNLOADING CARS 323
tion, character of booms, and other details to meet special
requirements. They are used for loading flat or skeleton cars.
The main features of a power loader are a steam hoisting-
engine and drums and an upright boiler. These are mounted
on a truck provided with some appliance for transporting itself,
and also carrying a rigid or swinging loading boom. Gasoline
engines have recently been substituted for steam on some pat-
terns, but they are not in extensive use.
Loaders are built with a short swinging-base control boom, a
long swinging end-control boom, or with a rigid boom. The
first two types are adapted for loading on poor track, because
the logs can be centered on the car and less manual labor is re-
quired to build the load securely. They also are desirable
where the logs are scattered. Short booms are not adapted for
handling long lengths. Rigid booms are used to advantage on
good track where the logs are abundant and fairly well decked.
There are two types of loaders.
(i) Loaders operating from log cars. The Barnhart, Model
C American and the Rapid loaders are the best illustrations of
this type.
(2) Loaders operating from the main railroad track. The
Decker, McGiffert, Surry Parker, American Models D and E,
and the Browning are the more common machines of this type.
An advantage of the Decker and McGiffert loaders is that
the loader may remain in one place until all logs are loaded,
while loaders of the first type must change their base for every
car unless a locomotive is in attendance to move the train as
desired.
(a) Barnhart. — This style of loader requires either perma-
nent or temporary tracks on the log car over which the loader
passes. Where permanent track is used, the rails are laid only
the length of the car bed, because if they were sufficiently long
to permit the loader to span the gap between cars they would
interfere when the train rounded sharp curves. The space be-
tween the rails on each car is spanned with two fi -shaped irons
placed on the car rails which can be removed as soon as the
loader has passed over the gap. Temporary tracks are made in
324 LOGGING
three sections. The loader rests on one section, another spans
the gap between the two cars and the third rests on the empty
car in the rear of the machine. As the loader proceeds along
the train the tracks are picked up by the loader and moved
behind it.
The engine, drums, booms, and all working parts are mounted
on a steel frame v/hich is pivoted to a truck frame carrying
eight pairs of trucks, with wheels lo inches in diameter. The
loader can revolve in a complete circle by means of a geared
wheel attached to the truck frame, into which mesh two pinions
Fig. 92. — A Model C .\inerican Log Loader.
which are driven by a double rotating engine. One form of
this loader uses a chain control for the rotary movement. The
weight of the loader is borne on five cone-shaped rollers attached
to the truck frame.
The loader propels itself from one car to another by means of
a cable passed around a drum on the loader, with the free end
attached by a hook to one of the cars in the rear.
A feature of this loader is a slack pulling device which consists
of a pair of friction sheaves mounted on the boom and driven by
a belt. The power is controlled by a hand lever.
Two sizes of loaders are made, the smaller, Xo. 10, having
LOADING AND UNLOADING CARS
325
chain control, an oak boom 25 feet long, a double 6|- by S-inch
hoisting engine with governor control and a 36- by 96-inch verti-
cal boiler. The cost of this loader is $3500 f.o.b., Marion, Ohio.
The No. 12 loader has a steel boom 23 feet 9 inches long, gear
and pinion rotary control, double hoisting engines with 7^- by
8-inch cylinders, controlled by a balanced throttle, and a 50- by
82-inch vertical boiler. The pull at the tongs on this machine
is claimed to be from 9 to 10 tons. The cost of a loader of this
type is $4700 f.o.b., Marion. Ohio.
Fig. 93. — The Rapid Log Loader.
The Barnhart, though a fast machine, is more expensive to
keep in repair than some of the other t}pes of loaders, and
requires skillful labor to secure the maximum output. INIany
loggers do not regard it with favor for use on narrow-gauge roads.
The maximum log that it can handle is one containing about
1500 feet log scale.
(b) Model C American. — This t^'pe of loader is similar in
character and operation to the Barnhart. It runs on temporary
tracks and uses the geared circle for rotating the machine. It
is one of the cheapest loaders to keep in repair and will handle
a log containing 2000 feet log scale.
326
LOGGING
It costs from $4000 to $4500 depending on the number and
character of special attachments.
(c) Rapid. — The Rapid loader is a stiff wooden boom
machine, with an upright boiler and double hoisting engine.
These are mounted on a pair of steel runners on which the loader
slides from car to car. Power for moving itself is furnished by
a cable and drum. Rapid loaders are sometimes mounted on a
heavy pair of two-sleds for sled loading. It is adapted for light
work.
1 it... 94- — A Decker Lot; Loiuler.
{d) Model D American. — This loader is used only where light
equipment is employed because it is necessary for the loader to
lift the empty car from the track in the rear to the front, or vice
versa. Model E is similar in character but has eight wheels
on the trucks and is adapted for poor track. Both D and
E can move under their own power. Model D costs about
$4900.
{e) Decker. — The frame of this loader consists of two decks.
The upper one is supported by steel posts which rest on bolsters
placed directly over the trucks on which the loader is mounted.
This deck carries the boiler, engine, and other working parts of
the machine, while the lower deck is on a level with the bolsters
LOADING AND UNLOADING CARS
327
and carries a portable track with hinged end sections which may
be lowered onto the rails and thus provide a continuous track
through the loader.
In operation a train of empties is pushed out to the loader and
backed through it until the last car comes in proper position,
under the boom, for loading. As other empty cars are required
a cable connected to a drum is run through the machine and is
attached to the draw bar of the first empty car. This car
is then hauled through the loader, pushing the loaded car forward
Fig. 95. — A McGififert Log Loader.
until the succeeding empty one is in position for loading. The-
work proceeds in this manner until the skidway has been emptied.
The Decker can travel under its own power from one point to
another, and can switch cars if necessary, although the latter is
not economical if a locomotive is available. It is recommended
for narrow-gauge steel and wooden railroads. The Decker
loader costs from $4500 to $6000.
(/) McGiffert. — This loader is similar in operation to the
Decker. It has one elevated deck which carries the working
parts and when the machine is loading the frame is supported on
four corner posts or "spuds" which are curved in toward the
328 LOGGING
lower extremities. Each post ends in a broad shoe which rests on
the crossties outside of the rail. The empty cars pass under the
deck, traveling on the main track. The loader is equipped with
a pair of trucks at both the forward and the rear end, on which
the loader travels. The frames to which these trucks are at-
tached and the trucks themselves are so hung on a shaft under
the floor of the deck that during the loading operation they may
be brought to a horizontal position under the loader. The
machine is then supported on the ties by the spuds. When ready
to move, the weight of the loader is lifted from the spuds by
bringing the truck frames to a vertical position by means of
cables and other mechanism. This raises the loader off the spuds
ready for a change of base. Power is transmitted to the axles
of the trucks by means of sprocket chains.
This machine is adapted for longer logs and wider-gauge roads
than the Decker, because of the greater space between the rail
and the deck.
The McGiffert loader costs from $4500 to $6000.
(g) Surry Parker. — This loader embodies the same general
principles as the two loaders previously mentioned, having the
upper deck high enough to permit loaded flat cars to run under
it. An early type was built without a device for transporting
itself, being carried about on a flat car. The modern type of
machine, however, is portable, the power being transferred from
the engines to the axles by a chain drive.
Capacity. — The output per day of a given type of loader is
dependent largely on the skill of the operator and the loading
crew, provided logs are at hand and the supply of empty cars is
adequate. The daily output may be as low as from 30,000 to
40,000 feet and again may rise to nearly 300,000 feet. For short
logs the swinging-boom base-control tj^^e of loader is the more
active and under average conditions may load from 100,000 to
130,000 feet daily.
Cost of Operation. — The cost of operation per thousand feet,
log scale, depends on the daily output, the wage scale of the region,
and the price of fuel. The general range is from 18 to 35 cents
per thousand feet.
LOADING AND UNLOADING CARS 329
SPECIAL LOADING DEVICES
A number of special devices are used for loading large logs on
cars, especially in the Pacific Coast region.
The ^' Gin- pole." — This is a modification of the crosshaul, a
yarding engine being substituted for horses. A f-inch loading
cable passes through a block attached to a mast or gin-pole
about 20 feet long, which is set in the ground on the side of the
track opposite the landing, and is thoroughly braced with guy
ropes.
The logs are loaded from a landing along the railroad to which
logs are brought by a yarding engine, road engine, or by a loco-
motive. Landings are built level with the car bunks and are
made from 40 to 300 feet long, but they usually are about 120
feet long to accommodate two 60-foot logs. They may consist
of a number of skids from 15 to 18 inches in diameter, placed
about 6 feet apart at right angles to the railroad track, and
supported on cribwork; or a large log may be placed on the
fore part of the landing parallel and next to the track and
from this the main skids supported on a cribwork run at right
angles. The rear of the landing may be at a lower level than the
part nearest the track.
Where top loads are put on cars a "lead log" is placed parallel
to the tracks on the side opposite the landing. It projects
slightly above the top of the car bunks and in order that the
direction of pull may always be at right angles the loading cable
is made to pass through the lead blocks which are attached to
this log. Where a lead log is not used it is customary to set up-
right posts 20 feet apart along the track opposite the landing.
These are not as convenient as the former because their use
makes it necessary for the engineer of the road engine to always
leave the logs opposite them.
The loading cable passes from the drum on the road engine,
or from a special loading engine through a block at the peak of
the gin-pole, then through the lead blocks, then across the car
and over and under the center or end of the log to be loaded.
The cable is then brought forward and the grab hook on the end
530 LOGGING
of the cable is caught in the edge of the landing, or on the car
bunk. By winding in the cable on the drum the log is rolled
up the landing and onto the car.
A modification of this device has been brought out for more
rapid work and for handling long logs. It consists of a loading
engine similar in type to the yarding engines and two gin-poles
and loading lines instead of one. The cables are attached to
the logs by means of tongs or slings. Each line may be oper-
ated independently or the two may be operated in unison.^
Loading ivitJi Jacks or Peavies. — This method is used where
logs are loaded by hand and only bunk loads are placed on the
cars, peavies being employed for loading small logs and jacks
for large ones.
Landings with a slight pitch toward the track are used when
loading by this method. The cars are spotted opposite the load-
ing point and the logs are put into position to roll onto the car
by moving one end or the other of the log with jacks. When
the log is in position the blocks holding it are released and the
log allowed to roll by gravity toward the car. If it is a small
log it may be allowed to roll directly onto the car, but if it is a
large one it is stopped on the edge of the landing by chock blocks
and then gradually rolled onto the car bunks. Logs are pre-
vented from rolling off the far side of the car by chock blocks
fastened to the car bunk. When necessary the distance between
the car bunk and the edge of the landing may be spanned by a
skid 3 or 4 feet long and 6 or 8 inches in diameter. Four men
with jacks can load about 100,000 feet daily.
Loading Logs from Water Storage. — Landings may be replaced
by artificial ponds in which the logs are dumped when brought
in by the road engine.
A scheme sometimes employed is to run a car into the pond
until it is submerged, when a bunk load is floated in position over
the car, which is then pulled out loaded.
Another method consists in the use of a modified crosshaul.
A lead log is placed at the height of the car bunk on the loading
side of the railroad track, and from it skids slope down to the
1 The Timberman, December, 19 10, p. 2,2,.
LOADING AND UNLOADING CARS 33 1
bed of the pond. Two cables are attached to the lead log at a
distance apart of approximately 20 feet, the free ends being
fastened to a ring, thus forming a "parbuckle." The loading
line which has a hook on its free end, passes from the engine
over the load and is caught in the ring of the parbuckle. The
latter is dropped down in the water and men standing on a
platform a few feet from the edge of the pond float logs over it.
The loading line is then reeled in on the loading drum and the
logs are rolled up the rollway and onto the edge of the car bunk.
They are drawn to the far side of the car by passing the
loading cable over and under the log and catching a swamp
hook on the far side of the car bunk. The tightening of the
cable rolls the log in the desired direction. The loading line
and parbuckle are returned to the pond men by a haul back
line. From three to four men can load 100,000 feet per day,
in this manner.
Jack Works. — ■ Where logs are to be raised to a considerable
height as from a river or a large pond an outfit called a "jack
works" is employed. This method has been used both in the
South and in the Northeast, where medium-sized logs are han-
dled.
A jack works is a long narrow platform built at a sufficient
height above ground to permit the construction of a sloping
dock on the side next to the loading tracks, the base of which is
flush with the car bunks. The loading tracks on which the log
cars are "spotted" are placed alongside the dock. The length
of the platform is governed by the number of cars to be loaded
and the switching facilities. If provision is made for moving
cars by gravity and the logs are of fairly even length so that
any of them will go on a given car, the platform need onl}^ be
long enough to handle the longest logs. When logs must be
sorted before loading and when many cars must be spotted at
one time the platform should be of sufficient length to accommo-
date the maximum number of cars.
A shallow trough runs the entire length of the platform.
In it an endless chain travels to which log dogs are attached
at approximately 8-foot intervals. A similar trough and chain
332
LOGGING
serve to carry the logs from the water to the platform along
which they are carried until they are rolled onto the dock
below. The chains are driven either by a steam, or gasoline
engine. The logs are loaded on cars chiefly by graxity. Skids
are placed from the docks to the load as the latter is built up,
and the top logs are rolled on to the load with cant hooks.
UNLOADING LOG CARS
The expeditious unloading of log cars is an important factor
in train operations because it reduces the amount of rolling stock
required. Logs are general!}- stored in ponds, streams, or on
storage skids, but at hardwoods plants and pulp mills they are
occasionally placed in large piles.
Photograph by J. H. Fahrenbach.
Fig. 96. — A Rolhvay at the Mill Pond. Texas.
Roll-ways. — Where water storage is used the track is built
along the bank of the stream or pond, or else extended over the
water on piling. In the former case it is necessary to construct
an inclined rollway over which the logs may be rolled into the
LOADING AND UNLOADING CARS 333
water. This consists of a framework composed of three parallel
sets of stringers, spaced 8 feet apart, which extend along the
water's edge for from 400 to 600 feet. The outer stringer projects
over the water's edge and is supported on piling or on timbers
that rest on solid bottom, while the other stringers are supported
on round or square uprights placed from 4 to 6 feet apart.
Heavy round or square timbers, often shod with railroad iron,
are placed on top of and at right angles to the stringers, and serve
as a bed over which the logs are rolled. These timbers are
spaced from 4 to 6 feet apart on the stringers and have a pitch
of from 15 to 25 degrees. The upper ends are placed level with
the top of the car bunks.
When the water is shallow near the rollway, the logs are
shunted into deep water by sloping skids which extend from the
lower stringer to the bed of the pond or stream.
The railroad track is laid parallel with the rollway and close
enough so that the top of the car bunks will be about 6 inches
distant. To facilitate unloading, the outer rail is elevated from
12 to 15 inches thus throwing the side of the car next the rollway
at a lower level. Many of the logs will roll from the car into the
pond when the car stakes are removed, the dogs on the car bunks
lowered, or the binding chains loosened. The remainder of the
logs are rolled off the car by means of cant hooks or pea vies.
This is one of the simplest methods and is widely used in the
Lake States and southern yellow pine region where the timber is
of medium size.
On the Pacific Coast where logs are often unloaded into tide-
water and rafted, the track is built on piling either over the
water or else along the side of the bank. The structure is long .
enough to accomodate twenty cars or more. Some protection
must be given the piling supporting the track and when the
trestle is in deep water this is accomplished by driving a pile
at the end of each tie. These piles are cut off about two feet
below the level of the track and are beveled on top to shunt
off the falling logs. An additional row of piles is sometimes
driven just outside the first one and beveled off in a similar
manner. When the trestle is located on land, a slanting roll-
334 LOGGING
way must be built out far enough to carry the logs into deep
water.
The outer rail of the track is elevated from 8 to 12 inches,
either by leaving the outer legs of the trestle longer, or by elevat-
ing the outer ends of the crossties by means of blocking.
When car stakes are used the practice is either to knock them
out with a maul, or to cut them off with an ax. Logs often will
roll off the cars unaided, but when assistance is required, jacks
are used for log trucks and often for flats. Power unloaders
of the character described on page 336 are in occasional use for
unloading flats and skeleton cars.
For dry land storage at mills, skidways are built on one or
both sides of the device used for conveying logs into the mill.
The skidways are wide enough to hold one car of logs, and long
enough to accomodate the required number of cars.
Storage skidways consist of a series of parallel skids placed
at right angles to the railroad track, and supported on timbers
placed on the ground. The skids slope toward the center at an
angle of from 10 to 12 degrees to facilitate handling the logs.
The outer rail of the track is elevated to aid in unloading.
Power Unloaders. — There are several types of power unloaders
used which are employed chiefly on the Pacific Coast where large
and long logs are handled. However, some t>pes are used in the
Lake States and in the hardwood region.
Swinging-boom log loaders which pick logs from the car and
deposit them on either side of the track are among the devices
used where logs are stored in piles on dry ground.
An overhead cableway system, supported on two spars from
500 to 600 feet apart and spanning the railroad track on which the
logs are brought in, is another scheme employed where logs are
stored in piles. The trolley is operated in a manner similar to
the overhead cableway logging system (page 198).
An ingenious device called a log dump is used at some plants.
One built in Washington consists of two dumps separated by
30 feet of stationary track, the entire structure being supported
on piling.^ The platform of each dump is 40 feet long and
1 The Timberman, August, 191 2, p. 68.
LOADING AND UNLOADING CARS
335
336 LOGGING
consists of four latch timbers {A), which are ii feet long and
a fifth timber (B), known as the trip timber, which is 36 feet
long and of larger size. The frame is hung on a roller timber
(C) 18 by 18 inches square and 40 feet 2 inches long which rests
on heavy cast-iron sills. The roller timber is bound w^ith an
iron cylinder to facilitate its rotation. This roller is placed
off-center, the distance between the rail on the land side and the
center of the roller timber being 2^ inches. WTien the latches
(D) holding the frame are released the weight of the load will
automatically tip the frame tow^ard the brow skid (E) through
an arc of 15 degrees. In operation, the cars are run on the dump,
the chains holding the logs on the cars removed, and the latches
(D) opened. The dump then revolves until the car bunk rests
on the brow skid (E). The majority of the logs will roll off,
although some must occasionally be started by means of a cable
which passes through a block rigged on a gin-pole. The cable
is pulled by a locomotive. The dump will not tip when the load
is heaviest on the land side, in w'hich case it is operated by prying
up on the end of the trip timber (B). After the logs are off the
car the dump is brought to a horizontal position by having men
walk out on the trip timber (B).
The double dump will handle two cars of 40-foot logs, or one
car of long logs by spotting one truck on each track. Three
men can unload a car in two and one-half minutes and can
unload 350,000 feet or more daily.
The cost of the dump was S2000, exclusive of the value of
the timber used. Including the cost of rebuilding the dump,
the annual repairs during the last seven years have been $300.
An efficient unloader consists of a hoisting engine and two
drums mounted on a car equipped with a rigid boom. The
railroad track is built parallel to the rollway and the unloader
runs on an additional track on the land side of the dump. The
boom is so placed that it projects at right angles over the far
edge of the railroad track. The unloader can travel back and
forth under its ow^n power for a distance of from 500 to 600 feet,
thus permitting an entire train to be unloaded without moving
the cars. A f -inch cable passes from the drums on the hoisting
LOADING AND UNLOADING CARS
337
a
{
c
■s
(
U
■-— "
L---
^--<
^
'i
^
-'h
Ui
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K,
338 LOGGING
engine through a block on the peak of the boom, down under
the logs and the grab hook is caught on the bunk of the car or
on the buffer log of the rollway. The winding up of the cable
crowds the logs off the car onto the rollway. Two other drums
and cables are used, one for raising and lowering the boom
and the other for moving the unloader back and forth on the
track.
Another form designed to unload heaw logs from cars while
the train is in motion consists of two steel arms 17 feet long made
of channel and angle iron. The arms are 18 inches wide except
at the ends, where they are made 36 inches wide to give a broad
surface to repel the logs. A heavy casting carrying a sharp
edge is attached to the outer end of each arm. The two arms
are bolted opposite each other on a 24-inch journal, and are
braced with a turnbuckle. The arms and journal are set on a
shaft II feet long, and 10 inches in diameter, cut down to 8
inches where the journal is fastened to admit the attachment
of a collar with ball bearings. The shaft is set in a concrete
base, high enough to allow the arms to clear the car bunks, and
far enough distant so that when the arm extends across the
track at right angles, it reaches one foot beyond the outer rail.
To unload a train load of logs, the loaded cars are pushed up to
the rear of the unloader, a loader arm is swning up against the
log, and the train put in motion. The sharp edge of the arm
grips the log and as the train advances the arm is turned on its
axis and the log or logs are gradually shoved oft" the car. The
momentum acquired in performing the work causes the arms
to revolve rapidly on the axis as soon as the logs are dumped,
and the opposite arm comes in contact with the logs on the
succeeding car. It is seldom necessary to stop the train during
the unloading process. The average time consumed in unload-
ing 75.000 feet of logs from 15 cars is eight minutes.
An unloader similar in type is called the Hercules Log Un-
loader. It dift'ers mainly in having one arm only and requires
the services of a man to attach the arm by means of a chain
and grab hook to the bunk of the log car in order to sw^ing the
arm across the track. On releasing the chain the arm auto-
LOADING AND UNLOADING CARS 339
matically assumes a position parallel with the track, ready for
the following car.
A satisfactory device used by a redwood operator in California
for unloading logs from cars consists of a 20- by 28-inch timber,
placed across the track at an angle of 45 degrees, and securely
fixed at each end on solid supports. The base of the beam is
about 8 inches above the upper face of the car bunk. The
loaded train, one log on each car, is brought in from the woods
and pushed along the track toward the unloader. The logs
striking the slanting timber are pushed off the car as the train
advances. When half of the train has been unloaded the loco-
motive is uncoupled from the rear of the train, run around and
attached to the forward cars, and unloading is continued until
completed. Thirty thousand feet of logs can be unloaded by
this device in three minutes.
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER XXI
Anonymous: Swinging "Gill-poke" Unloader. The Timberman, Portland,
Oregon, October, 1909, p. 23.
EvENSON, O. J.: An Improved Log-loading System. The Timberman, August,
1912, p. 52.
O'GoRMAN, J. S.: Unloading Log Cars with a Stationar>' Rig. The Timber-
man, August, 1909, p. 48.
O'Hearne, James: Tilting Log Dumps. The Timberman, August, 1912, pp.
68-69.
Van Orsdel, John T.: Cableway Loading System. The Timberman, July,
1911, p. 46.
PART IV
WATER TRANSPORT
CHAPTER XXII
FLOATING AND RAFTING
Nearly every large stream in the forest regions of the United
States has at some time in its history served as a highway down
which logs and lumber have been floated to sawmills and market.
It is still the favorite method of transporting logs in the eastern
part of the United States, but in many other regions it has been
superseded by railroads, because of the exhaustion of the timber
supply near driveable streams, the extensive logging of non-
floatable species, and the increased value of stumpage.
In the more recently developed timber sections of the Inland
Empire and the Pacific Coast, water transport early gained a
foothold but is now of secondary importance, except where logs
are brought to the shores of Puget Sound, the Columbia River
and the Pacific Ocean, and then rafted and towed to the mill.
In the Northwest the use of small streams for driving is not
satisfactory because of the large diameter of the logs and the
long lengths in which it is desirable to bring them from the
forest.
Logs may either be floated singly or rafted. The former
method is practiced always on rough water and small streams,
and whenever permissible on large ones; however, rafting is
compulsory on navigable streams.
Water transport is primitive, but it is a cheap method of
moving logs for long distances where a low expenditure is
required for stream improvements and driving, and also for
transporting logs out of a well-watered region where otherwise a
large mileage of expensive logging railroad would have to be
constructed to tap a trunk line.
Water transport has the following disadvantages:
(i) It is limited chiefly to logs which will float. Softwoods
and hardwoods are often associated together in the forest and
343
344 LOGGING
present market conditions make it profitable to remove some
or all of the latter, which is often impossible with water trans-
port.
(2) It is dependent on an abundant rainfall to flood the
streams. During seasons of drought it may be impossible or
very expensive to move logs by water. This results in a short
log supply and the closing down or short-time operation of saw-
mill plants. Sawmills in the northern regions that are dependent
on water transportation for a log supply can only run for six or
seven months, unless special provisions are made for keeping the
log pond open during freezing weather.^ During the remainder
of the year the plant is idle and during this period the owner
does not realize on his investment.
(3) There is a heavy loss in driving logs for long distances.
Logs of all species that have much sapwood suffer a heavy loss in
merchantable volume between the bank and the mill if they do
not reach their destination during the season in which they were
logged, because the sapwood is attacked by insects and fungi.
Basswood logs that have floated for a short period in water
containing vegetable matter acquire a pecuhar and unpleasant
odor that renders the lumber from them unfit for sugar barrel
cooperage and packages for other commodities that are easily
tainted.
The heartwood of stranded logs, especially of hardwoods,
suffers from checks and spHts when exposed to the weather.
A very appreciable loss in driving timber is due to sunken and
stranded logs. The extent of this loss is dependent on the species
driven and the character of the stream.
Where timber is brought down rough streams, over water-
falls, and past obstructions it is often badly battered and broken,
and gravel and sand become imbedded in a large per cent of the
logs. Occasionally they accumulate iron and spikes, especially
where iron dogs are used in rafting. Much of this foreign matter
is not readily detected, and mills suffer a monetary loss due to
damaged saws and time lost by the sawmill crew.
1 The sawing season in the North, on the Mississippi river, with shght fluctua-
tions, is from May i to November i.
FLOATING AND RAFTING 345
Strict laws are now in force in most states providing adequate
penalties for the theft of logs so that this evil has been largely
remedied. Formerly theft was common on the Pacific Coast,
but is now confined largely to logs in the booms tied up at the
mills or other storage places.
The actual loss in log scale from all causes on the Mississippi
River drives averages about lo per cent; on the Cumberland and
Tennessee Rivers in Kentucky, lo per cent; in Montana, lo per
cent; spruce, 5 to 10 per cent and birch, 3 to 27 per cent on short
drives in the Northeast; hardwoods in Pennsylvania, 25 to
40 per cent; yellow pine, 20 to 33 per cent. The loss in the Lake
States may be as high as 30 per cent.^ On short drives of conif-
erous timber the loss is small and may be from zero to 3 per
cent. This loss is due largely to sunken and stranded logs and
not to the deterioration of sapwood.
Floods and storms have caused heavy losses to lumbermen who
operate on the large streams.^ Booms break and loose logs are
carried past the mills and deposited on the banks at points below,
or carried out to sea. Where logs are deposited on lands adjacent
to the streams heavy expense is incurred, not only in getting the
logs back in the stream but in the payment of damages to owners
on whose property the logs were deposited. It seldom is profit-
able to return logs upstream to the mill and they are often sold
at a sacrifice to mills below.
Many states have passed laws regulating the fee that parties
^ In the case of James L. Gates vs. Elliott C. Young, lumber inspector of
District No. 2, Wisconsin, tried in the courts of LaCrosse, Wisconsin, in 1901, an
attempt was made by plaintiff to compel defendant to reimburse him for difference
in scale between the "bank" and the boom. During the trial, prominent lumber-
men from the Black River district testified that "there might and would occur a
difference between the woods and mouth scale of from 10 to 30 per cent."
2 Notable instances are the floods on the Susquehanna River in Peimsylvania,
that caused great loss to operators at Williamsport. In i860, 50,000,000 feet of
logs were carried away, followed in 186 1 with a loss nearly as great. In 1889,
300,000,000 feet were carried down the river but a considerable quantity of logs
were salvaged. Another flood occurred in 1894, when 150,000,000 feet were strewn
along the river from Williamsport to Chesapeake Bay. Although many logs from
these floods were recovered, the loss to the owners was nevertheless very great.
Floods on the Penobscot River in Maine in December, 1901, carried to sea about
7,000,000 feet of logs, valued at $100,000.
346 LOGGING
may charge for catching stray logs that are afloat, and the con-
ditions under which log catchers may operate.^
Runaway logs on the Ohio River have been carried to the Gulf
of Mexico. On many other streams draining into the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans logs have been carried to sea and lost. Tim-
ber caught on the high seas is the property of the finder. Rafts
on the Great Lakes are sometimes broken up during storms and
the logs scattered over the beach for many miles. The collection
of logs under these conditions is expensive and in some cases the
cost is prohibitive.
(4) Stream improvements are of little or no value after the
abandonment of logging operations. The improvements made
on streams to render them driveable are often costly and of such
a nature that they cannot be used for other purposes after logging
is completed. Exceptions to this may be noted in the case of
the boom sticks used for storage purposes at large sorting centers,
which are manufactured into lumber at the conclusion of opera-
tions; and of dams on large streams which may be retained for
the control of the water supply.
(5) The heavy and long time investment required for mill
stocking. With long drives that are now made one or more
seasons may elapse before the logs reach the mill. On the
Ohio and Mississippi Rivers it is not uncommon for logs to
reach their destination the second summer after cutting and in
some cases delivery has been delayed from three to five years. ^
This long time investment in stumpage and logging expense is
^ The legal fee in Pennsylvania is 50 cents for each thousand feet, log scale, held
and delivered to the owner.
The legal fee on the Guyandotte River in West Virginia and Kentucky is 25
cents per log.
A stringent State law in Washington forbids anyone catching runaway logs
without permission. This law was found necessary to stop the practice of setting
logs adrift from booms at night and then claiming a fee for returning them.
Loggers pay 5 cents per tie and 50 cents per log for all runaways that are caught
and returned to them.
2 In 1907 a drive of yellow poplar logs came down the Ohio River from the
headwaters of one of the tributaries, where it had been held up for five years because
of an insufificient water supply. The loss in merchantable contents of many logs
was 75 per cent.
FLOATING AND RAFTING 347
not only a serious drain on the finances of a lumber company
but the value of the logs that have been cut for such long periods
is greatly depreciated.
(6) The legal complications with riparian owners. The rights
of loggers on "floatable" and "navigable" streams are defined
by state laws which vary in different states. The driver of
logs is liable for damages to property of riparian owners caused
by the creation of artificial freshets that overflow the lands,
damage the banks, or deposit logs or debris on the property.
Navigable streams must be kept open and the rights of all other
lawful users of the stream respected. Loggers, in some states,
find themselves frequently forced into costly litigation and this
has a deterrent effect on the utilization of streams for the trans-
portation of logs.
REQUIREMENTS FOR A DRIVE ABLE STREAM
(i) The size of the stream. The stream channel should be
wide enough and deep enough. to float the largest and longest
logs without the formation of jams. High banks are desirable
since they confine the water and prevent it from losing its force.
When not so confined sufficient water may not be available to
float logs for more than a short distance, in which case numerous
splash dams have to be built.
The most economical use can be made of a small stream
when it is only a little wider than the longest logs and of a
sufficient depth to float them clear of all obstructions. If there
are obstructions the channel must be capable of improvement
at a moderate cost. On large streams logs may be guided
around obstructions by the use of booms and other improve-
ments, but in narrow channels this usually is impossible and
the stream bed must be improved either by the removal of
obstructions, changing the course of the stream or putting in
sluices for transporting logs around places where floating by
ordinary means is not possible.
(2) The channel must be reasonably straight so that logs will
not become jammed at the bends of the stream. This is most
important on small streams because of the narrow channel.
348 LOGGING
Oxbows or curves in small streams may be remedied by making
a cut-off or channel connecting the two nearest points, but this
is too costly where bends are numerous.
(3) There must be a sufficiently large drainage basin above
that part of the stream used to ensure an adequate supply of
flood water. Coupled with this there must be storage reservoirs
for holding water in reserve for flooding the stream. In the
North the snow on the watershed may melt and a large part of
it run down the streams before the drive begins. Storage basins
are necessary to conserve this water.
Lakes form an admirable reservoir and when available are
employed for this purpose. Surplus water is caught and held
in them by placing dams across their mouths and when several
lakes are tributary to one stream dri\dng may proceed long
after the natural spring freshets are over.
Sites for dams should have a narrow channel, high banks and
a soHd bottom for their foundation. In order to store the
greatest amount of water they should be built at the foot of a
lake, at the end of a long stretch of dead water, or in such a
place that the maximum amount of water can be stored with
a minimum of dam height.
Storage reservoirs should be large enough to permit log driv-
ing for a minimum of five or six hours daily and the drainage
area should furnish enough water to again fill the storage basin
before the driving period on the following day.
The required watershed area and the capacity of the storage
basins for a given stream are dependent on :
{a) The amount of moisture precipitation on the watershed,
especially during the fall and winter months, and also the rapidity
with which it is made available in the spring. Drives are gen-
eially dependent on flood waters and a rapid run-off is desirable
because the storage basins will then be refilled in the minimum
time after each splash.
The detennination of whether a watershed is capable of sup-
plying sufficient flood water for driving purposes is a matter of
judgment on the part of the logger. He bases his conclusions on
the flood marks such as flood wood and earth deposits which
FLOATING AND RAFTING 349
are visible along the stream banks, on a familiarity with similar
streams, and on a general knowledge of rainfall and floods in
the vicinity. The amount of water available for driving in a
given watershed usually cannot be accurately determined since
specific records from which to draw conclusions are seldom
available.
Evaporation may play an important part in influencing the
water supply during the summer season by taking moisture
both from the soil and from the surface of the storage reservoirs.
The water supply for early spring driving is not greatly affected
by evaporation, but shallow reservoirs that store water for sum-
mer driving have a high rate of evaporation and it is sometimes
impossible to collect a head of water.
(b) The quantity of water required in a given time to carry
logs down stream between storage reservoirs. On small streams
where large quantities of water are not available or where the
banks are low and the water leaves the main channel it may
not be possible to drive logs more than a few miles at most
before the force of the water is spent. In such cases frequent
storage basins are required.
(c) The length of time for which flood water must be available.
If artificial freshets are required only for a short time in the
spring when the streams are fed from snow water a smaller stor-
age area may be used than when water must be available for
several months.
DAMS
Dams for logging purposes are usually built of round timber
secured close to the dam site.
It is necessary to construct a dam on solid bottom or bed-
rock because if this is not done water will work underneath the
sills and ultimately cause the structure to go out.
There are three types of timber dams used for logging pur-
poses: (i) the crib or pier dam; (2) the rafter or self-loading
dam; (3) the pile dam.
Concrete dams of large size are occasionally used by lumber
companies, but they are built by engineers, and loggers are
seldom concerned in their construction.
35© LOGGING
Timber dams on small streams usually have a sluiceway
through which logs are run and waste water passed, while on
large streams several waste gates are required to take care of
surplus water. "Roll dams" which have no gates or sluice-
ways are also built to raise the stream level. The water and
logs pass over the crest of the dam.
Crih Dams. — The crib dam is a common form and is so-
called because the buttresses and wings are built of cribs usually
filled with stone to hold them down. The necessity for the
use of stone is determined by the head of water carried and
by the size of timber used in construction. Crib dams are
made from round timber hewed on two sides, or from squared
timber.
The foundation of a crib dam must be solid and. whenever
possible, it is built on bedrock; but if this cannot be done the
foundation may rest on piles driven into hard clay or to bed-
rock. If this is impossible, a row of 3-inch plank or small hewed
poles sharpened on one end are driven in a row across the stream
channel just above the upstream mud-sill. These planks and
timbers are called toe-spiling.
If there is much water on the stream bed it is diverted to one
side by temporary dams made of sand bags or by the construc-
tion of sluices made from logs or lumber.
In constructing a dam whose siUs are to rest on bedrock, the
first work done after the water is diverted is to excavate trenches
from 4 to 5 feet wide in which the logs forming the cribwork are
to rest. The foundation may be made slightly convex on the up-
stream side in order that the force of the water will tend to tighten
the joints of the dam. Three parallel lines of large logs called
''mud-sills" are placed across the stream from bank to bank,
each row being spaced 6 or 8 feet from the adjoining one. If
the dam is to be of greater height than 12 feet, additional
sills must be used. The mud-sills must lie flat on the bottom
and if possible should be fastened to bedrock with f-inch drift
bolts. A row of cross-skids from 12 to 16 inches in diameter
is laid 8 feet apart across the mud-sills in a direction parallel
with the stream bed. Thev extend from the front to the rear
FLOATING AND RAFTING 351
row of mud-sills into which they are notched so as to rest
firmly. Logs with two hewed faces are then placed on top of
the cross-skids to which they are drift-bolted. These lie parallel
to the mud-sills. All timbers on the upstream side of the dam
are hewed down and fitted to each other so that a tight face is
made.
A cribwork is built up until it reaches the level of the stream
bed, when it is necessary to provide a "sluiceway" through
which logs may pass and also gates through which surplus water
may be wasted. Sluiceways are generally from 9 to 15 feet
wide and are placed in the center of the natural stream bed.
A sufficient number of waste gates are placed on either side to
care for the surplus flood water. The slides of the sluiceway
and of the waste ways, both of which carry head works for gates,
are made stronger and of larger logs than the rest of the structure
and are often reinforced with piers. In building waste gates
and sluices the transverse sills are cut oft" where the opening
begins and the cross-skids which form the side walls of the sluice
have smooth hewed faces that fit closely together. The cribwork
of the dam is then continued to the desired height. When
finished the upstream face of the dam is calked with tow or
boarded up with 3 -inch plank to make it tight. The cribs are
often roughly floored with puncheons and filled with rock to
weight them dowTi. The cover of boards on the face is sometimes
replaced with a bed of gravel although both boards and gravel
are frequently used.
Piers are often constructed on each side of the sluiceway above
the dam to confine the w^ater, strengthen the dam, and prevent
the structure from being undermined.
An apron also extends out from the sluice on the lower side
of the dam to carry the water and logs away from its base
and prevent the wearing away of the earth around the foun-
dations.
A crib dam of hewed timber which w^as built in Wisconsin a
few years ago was 12 feet high, 20 feet wide and 400 feet long.
The cribs were filled with stone and a roadway was built on top
of the dam. The cost of construction was approximately $4000
352 LOGGING
for labor and materials, exclusive of the value of the timber
used.
Where the stream bed is sandy and rather unstable a row of
piling is sometimes driven across the dam site near the center
of the sluiceway. These are cut off at the stream bed level
and prevent the bottom from washing out. A dam of this
character which was lo feet high was constructed at the follow-
ing cost:
Cutting and skidding 170 piles S 45
Driving 170 piles 210
Cutting and skidding crib timbers (5500 board feet) 15
Crib building 90
Dam gate construction 10
Building embankment and clearing up reservoir in rear 250
Total S620
Four men were occupied twenty-one days in driving piles and
ten days in building the structure. In addition one team and a
driver were required for three days to skid the timber. Other
workmen cut the piles and crib material. The embankment was
made largely by hand labor and was not included in the thirty-
one days.
Rafter or Self-loading Dam. — This tx^pe is cheaper to build
than a crib dam and is used where a large head of water is not
required.
Rafter dam foundations are constructed in the same manner
as crib dams with pockets 8 by 8 feet in size. The mud-sills are
drift-bolted to bedrock when possible. As the framework is
built up, the face of the dam is drawn in from the level of the
stream bed so that the upstream face has an angle of 3 horizontal
to I vertical. The dam should be at least 8 feet wide on top.
Two thicknesses of 3-inch plank or hewed poles are spiked on the
sloping face, the joints being alternated and the whole covered
with a bed of gravel. The rear mud-sill is protected by toe-
spiling driven down to hard clay or bedrock, and the cribs are
weighted dowTi with stone. A dam of this character, 200 feet
long and 10 feet high was built in the Adirondacks at a cost of
$1600. A similar dam 60 feet long and 10 feet high was built
in Canada for S700.
i
FLOATING AND RAFTING
353
The frame for rafter dams is frequently supported on round
or square timbers instead of cribwork.
Pile Dam. — ■ The buttresses and wings of this type of dam are
formed by a double row of piles driven to bedrock, the space
Photograph by H. R. McMillan.
Fig. 99. — The Sluiceway and Apron of a Rafter Dam on the Priest River.
Idaho.
between them being filled with gravel and stone. The up-
stream face is banked up with brush and gravel to stop leakage.
This type is not in frequent use, although it was at one time
common in the Lake States. «
354
LOGGING
SLUICE GATES
It is necessary to provide some form of gate for controlling
the water in the sluiceway. The more common type is a hft
gate the width of the sluice. It slides up and down in a groove
formed by two heavy timbers nailed on each side of the sluice
walls, which are far enough apart to allow the gate to work up
and down easily. The gate may be lifted by levers, by a ratchet
device or by a windlass operated by levers.
Fig. ioo.
The Upstream Face of a Small Rafter Dam, showing a Common
Form of Lift-Gate.
Bear-trap Gate. — This type of gate has been used frequently
in Pennsylvania. The chief features are two rectangular leaves
each of which has a length equal to the width of the sluice.
They are fastened to the bottom of the sluice by hinges on which
they turn. The upstream leaf overlaps the downstream one
when the leaves are down and the gate open.
The gate is raised by the pressure of water from the upper
pool, which is conveyed in a channel, controlled by a sluice
gate, to a chamber (^), Fig. loi. constructed under the gate.
A second channel, also provided vvdth a gate or stopcock, con-
FLOATING AND R.\FT1NG
355
nects this chamber with the lower pool. When the connection
with the upper pool is opened, while that wdth the lower pool
is closed, water from the upper pool fills the chamber under
the gate. This causes the downstream leaf to rise, first by-
flotation and then by the impulse from the flow of the water.
The upper leaf is raised by the lower leaf which slides under it,
the friction being reduced by rollers. The height to which the
gate rises is limited either by stay chains, or by a wood cleat
nailed on the under side of the upper leaf. In lowering the gates
the operation is reversed, the connection with the upper pool
being closed while that with the lower pool is opened. The
gate may be made to assume any intermediate position by
Fig ioi. — ■ The Bear-trap Sluice Gate.
regulating the extent to which the two valves controlHng the
inlet and outlet of the chamber under the gate are opened.
The objections to this form of gate are: (i) the overlap of the
upper leaf over the lower one necessitates lifting a considerable
amount of water when the gate is raised; (2) the head of water
obtainable is only about one-third of the total width of the
leaves; (3) the friction between the two leaves, even when re-
duced by rollers makes it difficult to operate the gate smoothly;
(4) the gate must be made in one section and if the gate is wide
one side is apt to go up faster than the other, causing twisting
strains; (5) any driftwood or stones which may lodge between
the leaves make the lowering of the gate impossible until the
obstruction is removed.
Water can be let out of the reservoir very rapidly with a gate
of this character, and the latter can be raised and lowered by
356
LOGGING
FLOATING AND IL\FTING
357
one man as no special effort is required, both of which are
advantages.
Logging dams with ''bear-trap" gates 80 feet wide have been
built and operated in Wisconsin.
Half-moon Gates. — A dam constructed to store water for log
sluices often has a gate of a type called the ''half-moon." It is
not used for wide sluiceways nor for large heads of water. The
gate, which is slightly curved, fits tightly into the sluiceway with
the convex face upstream. It is supported by four arms from
Fig. 103
• Upstream View of a Rafter Dam, showing a Needle Gate.
Appalachians.
16 to 24 feet long, which extend to the lower end of the sluice
where they are attached to a beam hung on bearings placed on
either side of the top of the sluiceway. A platform erected over
the gate supports a drum actuated by a hand wheel with gearing,
or by a hand lever. Chains are attached to either side of the
gate head and are passed up over the drum, and the gate, which
swings through an arc of a circle with a radius equal to the length
of the supporting braces, is raised by winding in the chain.
Needle or Bracket Gate. — Splash dams, especially in the Appa-
lachian and Pennsylvania regions, are often provided with so-
358 LOGGING
called needle gates, which consist of hewed or sawed 3- by 5-inch
or 3- by 6-inch scantlings placed vertically across the opening,
thus forming a solid front. The needles are supported at the
lower end by a cross-beam or groove cut in the base sill. The
tops rest against a cross-beam to which the needles are often
attached by short chains. The needles are raised either by a wind-
lass, a crowbar or a lever. They are especially serviceable for
dams at storage reservoirs through which logs are not sluiced, but
where it is necessar}- to suddenly release large quantities of water
in order to carry logs over very rough stretches. In the above
case the needles may be hberated by breaking the bottom beam
by a charge of dynamite.
Barn-door Gate. — This consists of one or two heavy gates or
doors hung vertically on bearings attached to the sides of the
sluice. Double gates are held in place, when closed, by an up-
right beam in the center of the sluiceway, and single gates by a
similar beam placed on one side of the sluiceway. A horizontal
pole is sometimes used instead of an upright one to hold the
gate shut. These gates have been used in Pennsylvania and in
some parts of the Appalachians, but they are not popular be-
cause the force of the water throws them open so violently that
they are often damaged.
A hght drop gate is often used to shut off the flow of water
while the large gates are being closed.
LOG CARRIERS
Loggers operating near the headwaters of streams occasion-
ally find it desirable to transfer logs from one water course to
another in order to bring them down the stream on which the
manufacturing plant is located.
A log carrier similar to the log haul-up in a sawmill is employed
for elevating the logs to the maximum height desired, and a log
sluice with a V-box 4 or 5 feet high and 7 or 8 feet across the
top then carries the logs into the stream on the other water-
shed. Water for the sluiceway is furnished by a series of pumps
of large capacity.
FLOATING AND RAFTING
359
An interesting example of a device of this sort was the log
carrier and sluice constructed some years ago in the Nipissing
district, Ontario, Canada, to divert logs from the headwaters of
the Muskoka River to those of the Trent River.
The logs were first transported up a log carrier 300 feet long
to a reservoir 80 feet long, 7 feet wide and 8 feet deep, located
40 feet above the initial level. A 450-horse-power engine fur-
nished power for the jack works at the reservoir, and also for a
set of centrifugal pumps with a capacity of 20,000 gallons per
minute, which provided water for the reservoir, and for a log
sluice which was 3000 feet long and had a 4.5 per cent grade.
The logs as they reached the foot of the sluice were transported
by a log carrier up a 100-foot rise to a lake f-mile distant, where
they were placed in a boom and towed to the head of the river
down which they were driven. The second carrier consisted of
eight sections, each with a massive jack works driven by rope
transmission from a 400-horse-power horizontal water wheel
located near the center of the haul-up. Water for power pur-
poses was brought in a flume from the terminus of the carrier.
The conveyor chains were made with i-inch round links and
had log seats at intervals of 8 feet. The capacity of the carrier
was 10,000 logs in twenty-two hours.
IMPROVEMENT OF THE STREAM BED AND BANKS
Before a stream can be driven it must be cleared of fallen
timber, snags and boulders. The
former is often cut into short
lengths with an ax and allowed to
drift downstream, or is hauled out
on the banks. Snags, rocks and
similar obstructions are removed
with dynamite. This work is
done in the summer and early
fall when the water is low.
Pier Dams and Abutments. —
Pier dams are cribwork. structures
used to narrow the channel of a stream, guide logs past rocks
^^w/,y//////////////////W///////////^;^ _
Fig. 104. — An Abutment for the
Protection of Stream Banks.
360 LOGGING
and other obstructions, and in some cases to block an old
channel and divert the water into another course.
They are built in a manner similar to the piers of crib-dams
with cribs from 6 to 8 feet square, and mud-sills fastened to
bedrock or firmly anchored in the stream bed. The cribs are
loaded with rock to give them stability.
Abutments are used to protect the banks of streams during
flood time, and prevent them from being worn away. The
usual form consists of a cribwork of timber built into the bank.
The space between the shore and the timbers is filled with rock
to prevent the bank earth from washing out. Where streams
pass through wide bottoms and the banks are too low to con-
fine the flood water, an artificial channel is sometimes created
by constructing false banks of lumber. Cribwork supports a
strong frame of timbers on which heavy planking is nailed.
Fio. 105. — An Artificial Channel used to confine Flood Water in a
Narrow Bed.
Booms. — Backwaters, pockets, low banks, obstructions and
shallow places where logs are apt to be lost or stranded occur
on most streams. Booms, consisting of long sticks of timber
fastened together end for end and moored to objects on shore or
to piling or cribs in the stream, are used to confine the logs to the
channel. Booms are also used to aid drivers in sluicing logs
through dams, for confining logs at sorting gaps and storage
points, and for towing. They are built in many forms and are
called sheer booms when used to confine logs for storage purposes
in given channels and towing booms when used to impound logs
for towing purposes. They are again designated as limber and
stiff booms according to their manner of construction. Both
sheer booms and towing booms are often qi the same pattern and
are known as the "plug" boom, "sheep-shank" boom, "chain"
FLOATING AND RAFTING
361
boom, "bracket" boom, "fin" boom and "barge" boom. The
first three are single-log limber booms, the names referring to
the manner of attachment one to the other; the bracket boom is
a stiff boom several logs wide, and the fin and barge booms are
either stiff or limber.
Plug booms, also known as "plug and knock down" booms,_^
consist of logs fastened end to end with short pieces of rope or
withes whose ends are passed through holes bored in the ends of
the boom and securely fastened by plugs driven after them.
Booms of this character are serviceable as a makeshift when
stronger fastenings are not available.
DOG AND CHAIN
CLEVIS AND RING
Fig. 106. — The Methods of fastening Boom Sticks with Chains.
Sheep-shank booms are temporary booms fastened together by
rope, a half hitch being made around the ends of the logs. They
are used for repairing breaks in other booms where rope is the
only equipment available.
Chain booms are the common form of limber boom in use to-
day. Short chains are used to connect the logs, and are fastened
in several different ways: (i) by a chain and dogs; (2) by a ring
and toggle; (3) by a clevis, making an endless chain. The latter
form is used very commonly for towing purposes and for storage
areas because the booms can be readily uncoupled.
The bracket boom is a stiff boom made three or four logs wide.
The logs are fastened together by short boards nailed cross-
362
LOGGING
wise of the boom, or by short poles fastened to the logs by means
of wooden plugs, chains or withes. Booms of this character are
stronger than single booms and are used on the upstream side
of splash dams for converging logs toward the sluiceway, and are
also used around storage areas and sorting gaps as runways
for men.
The fin boom is often employed to change the course of logs
from one side of a stream to the other, or to guide them past
obstructions. It is especially serviceable on a navigable stream
Fig. 107. — A Fin Boom. a. A movable fin boom both open and closed, b. The
arrangement of boom and fins for a permanent fin boom.
where permanent booms cannot be maintained, and in places
where it is not feasible to moor the outer end of the boom to a
crib or pile. The shore end must always be upstream. The
fin boom may be either limber or stiff, preferably the latter, and
may be permanent or temporary. It consists of a main boom to
which the ends of pole or plank fins are attached by chains at
regular intervals. When the boom must be opened and closed
at frequent intervals the outer ends of the fins, which act as
rudders, are connected by a rope or cable which passes around
a drum or power-winch located on shore, while on stationary
booms the fins are weighted at the ends to give them rigidity,.
FLOATING AND RAFTING
363
and are fixed in a permanent position by means of a brace
extending from the fin to the main boom.
The boom may be thrown across a stream at any angle less
than 90 degrees by winding in on the cable and increasing the
angle between the boom and rudders. The boom may be brought
to shore by letting out cable.
A barge boom consists of a limber boom, three or four logs
wide, the upper end of which is fastened to a barge anchored in
midstream and the downstream end to a tree on shore. A boom
of this character is serviceable in a navigable stream where per-
manent booms cannot be used, and where the stream bed can-
not be obstructed with piling or cribs. It is often used in
connection with a fin boom when it is desired to shunt logs to
one side of a wide stream.
STORAGE AND SORTING FACILITIES
On all large streams on which logs are transported, the prop-
erties of various companies become intermingled, and at destina-
FiG. 108. — Piers built in a River to hold Storage Booms in Place. Minnesota.
tion it is necessary to sort out the timber of each owner. For
this purpose sorting works are maintained at points where any
given logs are to be manufactured, and extensive log storage
364
LOGGING
facilities also are often provided. Both the sorting and storage
works are generally owned by corporations (p. 368).
The storage booms consist of large pockets, extending some-
times for miles along one or both sides of the stream, into which
logs are shunted until the sorters are ready for them, and also
to hold sorted logs until wanted. The outer boundary of these
pockets is formed by single booms consisting of logs from 2 to 3
feet in diameter fastened together with i-inch or i j-inch chains or
other devices. The boom sticks are held in place in midstream
by cribs or nests of piling placed 75 or 100 feet apart.
Photograph by R. B. Miller.
Fig. 109. — Log Storing and Assorting Works on the St. John River. New
Brunswick.
Cribs are built of round logs from 16 to 24 inches in diameter
and of various sizes depending on the character of stream in
which they are placed and the amount of strain they must
withstand. The foundation is laid on bedrock or solid
bottom and the frame built up in the form of a square or
rectangular crib. In some cases the cribs are built rectang-
ular in form above the water, but usually the upstream face is
drawn in at an angle of from 30 to 40 degrees and planked
over. The sloping face prevents ice and driftwood from form-
ing a jam behind the crib and causing it to be carried away.
FLOATING AND RAFTING
365
The cribs are filled with rock to anchor them firmly. A common
method of attaching the boom sticks to the cribs is to drive a
pile in the center of the crib. After a large iron ring has been
loosely fitted over this pile the boom is fastened by a chain to
the ring, and as the water rises and falls the ring is slipped up
and down with the chain. Where piling is used instead of cribs
a nest of three or four are driven together and bound with
chains or cable.
Storage booms are usually taken in and the chains repaired
after the drive is over. They are replaced early in the spring, as
soon as the ice leaves the stream.
The capacity of storage booms varies with the size and length
of timber handled. The following table ^ shows the area in
acres required to store spruce logs of several sizes and lengths,
and also the number of boom logs required to impound given
quantities of timber when the logs are forced into a compact
body by the current of the stream, all sticks floating on the
surface.
Average
length.
Average
diameter.
Average scale
per piece.2
Area for
storage of
1,000,000 feet.
Feet.
153
20.5
24.6
30.0
Inches.
5-9
6.7
10.4
15-6
Board feet.
21.4
31-8
90.7
249.48
Acres.
13-41
11.94
8.15
5-34
2 Blodgett rule.
The average storage capacity of medium-sized white pine and
yellow pine logs is approximately 250,000 feet per acre.
Sorting Equipment. — The main feature is the sorting jack
where logs are separated and deflected into the storage pockets
downstream. The usual type of sorting gap consists of two op-
posite rafts or bracket booms placed from 30 to 50 feet apart and
connected by an elevated runway on which the sorters stand
and separate the logs by marks as they pass under them.
There are many forms of gaps governed by the amount of work
' Boom Areas, by A. M. Carter, Forestry Quarterly, Vol. X, No. i, p. 15.
366
LOGGING
to be done and the physical conditions that must be met. Fig.
no shows a sorting gap on the St. John River near Fredericton,
New Brunswick. This consists of two block piers 50 feet apart,
behind which are rafts built of five logs each, so arranged that
five gaps, each 22 feet wide, are formed on each side. The
space between opposite rafts is spanned by 4-foot plank bridges
on which the sorters stand. The division boom shown extends
downstream for 2000 feet to sheer booms which deflect the logs
to the American and Canadian sides. Seventy-five men are
employed at this gap and during the season 150,000,000 feet of
logs are handled.
*v -o;
CANADIAN SIDE OF SORTING GAP
" ^ a ^
Logs g
AMERICAN SIDE OF^SORTING G^P
._r___.r__ ^/*^
Division Boom N^fo
Fig. 1 10. — A Sorting Gap on the St. John River near Fredericton. New Brunswick.
A sorting device used in the Appalachian region is shown in
Fig. Ill, a.
This consists of a sheer boom (A) moored to a tree on the
bank and braced by a secondary boom at (B). The boom (A) is
held in place in the stream by cables attached as shown in Fig.
Ill, ^. The lower end of the boom is broken at (C) and may be
opened to allow logs and driftwood to pass downstream. A
sorting platform (Z>), with braces (E) and (F), is provided on
which the workers stand and shunt the logs to be stored into
the pocket (G). The remainder pass downstream to other
storage pockets or to points below. The boom (H) is elevated
by means of a built-up raft (Fig. 1 1 1 , c) to allow logs to pass
underneath into the storage pocket.
FLOATING AND RAFTING
367
Rafting Works. — These may be located below sorting gaps,
at the head of still water on non-navigable streams or at the
terminus of a logging railroad, or other form of transport along
the shore of a lake or at tidewater. The form of the rafting
works is governed by the character of the stream or body of
water and by the form of raft constructed. On rivers where
rafts are limited in width because of the size of the channel,
rafts are made long and narrow and the rafting works, if logs of
numerous owners are handled, may consist of many pockets
Fig. III. — A Patent Sorting Device used in the Appalachian Region.
whose boundaries are marked by bracket booms with plank
runways which are held in position by piling.
On the Great Lakes, where logs are towed loose in booms,
storage areas off-shore are provided in which logs are held until
a sufhcient number have accumulated. These areas are bounded
by heavy sheer booms held in place by piling. The rafts are
made up by surrounding a group of logs with heavy towing
booms and towing them out of the storage areas.
Along some of the tidewaters of the Atlantic seaboard logs
are made into bundles and towed to the mills. The rafting
works here consist of an unloading wharf which projects into
368 LOGGING
the stream, and special devices for holding chains and cables
while the logs are being bundled (p. 387).
On the tidewater of Puget Sound, where large numbers of logs
are rafted to the mills, a rafting works consists of an unloading
dock several hundred -2et long projecting into the storage area.
The latter is enclosed by sheer booms which are held in place by
piles driven about 70 feet apart. A rafting pocket 75 feet wide
and 800 feet long is enclosed in booms and in this the rafts are
built in sections.
Ocean-going rafts are built on tidewater along the Columbia
river. The usual storage area is provided and in addition,
cradles in which the rafts are built (p. 390).
THE DRIVE
The season in which logs are transported by water varies in
different regions. In the Northeast and the Lake States loggers
depend primarily on the spring flood waters that are caused by
the melting snow and hence the drive must begin as soon as
the ice goes out of the streams, since the water supply gradually
decreases as the season advances, and on the smaller streams
may be insufficient by early summer.
In the Appalachians and in the South where the snowfall is
limited, reliance is placed on freshets or heavy rainfalls for water
to float the logs and the drive is conducted whenever water is
available. On large bodies of water like the Great Lakes, Puget
Sound, and the Ocean the governing factor is the storm period
and the summer months are preferred because there are a mini-
mum number of storms during this season.
Conduct of Drives. — The business conduct of drives on streams
may be under the control of one man, a group of individuals, or
a corporation, depending on the ownership of the timber. Raft-
ing on the large rivers, with the exception of the ^Mississippi, on
lakes and on the ocean is usually undertaken by individuals or
corporations.
Drives on large rivers often originate on numerous small
streams around the headwaters, from each one of which come the
logs of an individual or a company. Under these circumstances
FLOATING AND RAFTING 369
the stream improvements are made and the drive is conducted
by one firm. On reaching the larger stream the logs of all
parties become intermingled and the drive is then conducted as a
"union" drive or as a corporation drive.
On union drives which have been frequent in the Northeast,
the expense of improvements and labor hire is apportioned
among the companies and individuals according to the amount
of timber each has in the stream. The direct control of the drive
is vested usually in the interested members, in rotation, and each
one has an employee at the sorting gap to look after his interests
when the logs are assorted.
A more common method is the control of the main drive by
boom companies chartered by the State in which the business
is conducted. The stream, if long, may be divided into several
sections, each in charge of a separate corporation. The member-
ship of such corporations is usually confined to loggers who use
the river for log transportation; however, it often does not include
some of the smaller operators. Many of the boom companies
operating in the Lake States, especially on the Mississippi River
and its tributaries, have a limited capital stock divided among
a few shareholders.
Another form of membership is represented by companies,
such as the St. John River Log Driving Company, operating
in the vicinity of Fredericton, New Brunswick.^ Each logger
having 100,000 feet or more passing through the limits of the
company is eligible to membership, on filing with the Secretary
a statement of all logs placed in the stream and their point of
origin, a list of all log marks used, and certain other required facts.
On filing this report the applicant becomes a member and is
entitled to one vote for each 100,000 feet of logs he has in the
drive. Thus every logger of any consequence has a voice in the
administration of the drive.
All states having large streams which are used for the transport
of logs have laws relating to the rights and pri\^ileges of loggers
and setting forth the duties and liabilities of incorporated boom
^ St. John River Log Driving Operations, by G. Scott Grimmer, Canada
Lumberman and Woodworker, Vol. XXXII, No. 11, June, 1912, p. 28.
37© LOGGING
companies. The charters of boom companies usually regulate
the prices to be charged for handling and rafting logs. The
state laws of Minnesota provide for inspection and scale of logs
in the booms by a surveyor-general and his deputies, for which
a fee of 5 cents per thousand feet for all logs scaled is charged
against the boom company. The surveyor-general is empowered
to seize and sell logs in case of non-payment of the fee.
On some tributaries of the Ohio River, especially on the Big
Sandy down which great quantities of logs have been floated,
the practice is for individuals to drive their logs loose from
the headwaters of the small streams to private rafting works
located on the lower course of the Big Sandy where the logs are
made into rafts by contract, floated to the mouth of the river
and there taken in charge by the owner and towed down the
Ohio River to the mills.
On the Pacific Coast the logs are brought to tidewater by
logging railroads and made into rafts at the owner's rafting works.
A. LOG MARKS AND BRANDS
Some method of identifying the logs of different owners w^hen
they are assorted at destination is imperative and lumbermen
have adopted the system of branding their logs at the skidways,
in the forest or at the landing on the stream. The brands con-
sist of numerals or characters, mounted on the head of a sledge
hammer. A log is stamped at several places on each end so
that no matter what portion of the log is afloat the brand can be
readily seen.
To further aid in the identification of logs the use of a bark
mark which is a design cut on the log near the end is obligatory
in some states. This may be made either by the sawyers when
they cut up the tree or at the landing. A bark mark is often
used in connection with a "catch mark" painted on the ends of
the log. In such cases a brand is not used. The number of
brands and marks used on a given stream is sometimes large,
each logger often employing several to distinguish logs coming
from given streams or sections of land. Some loggers use a new
set each season in order to keep the logs of different years sepa-
4
FLOATING AND RAFTING 37t
rate. On the upper Mississippi River more than 2000 log marks
have been registered with the surveyor-general, and over 1600
have been employed during a single season.
The marks and brands represent a great variety of figures
comprising single letters, monograms of two or three letters and
numerous figures which are known amongst river drivers by
fantastic names.
Log brands have always been the distinguishing feature for
logs in the Adirondack region, while in Maine bark marks are
extensively employed. Both forms are used on the Mississippi
1 2 3 ' 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
OX ll/X 0+iY^~7\^h F?
18 .19 20
27 2S 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Fig. 112. — Some Mississippi River Log Marks, i-io, monograms; ii, blaze notch;
12, notch girdle; 13, scalp; 14, cross; 15, notch; 16, dagger; 17, cross girdle;
18, diamond; 19, twenty; 20, thirty; 21, umbrella; 22, saw horse; 23, fork; 24,
straight S; 25, flag; 26, pine tree; 27, inv-erted A with scalps; 28, fifty; 29, pot
hook; 30, fish hook; 31, bar C; 32, box with ears; S3> wild goose: 34, sheep
head; 35, crow foot; 36, double dagger; 37, fifteen; 38, triangle; 39, star girdle;
40, turtle.
River and its tributaries, and also in many parts of the Appa-
lachian region. Brands are in extensive use on the Pacific Coast
where logs are transported by water, but are seldom used in the
interior.
When registered^ with some designated state or county official
1 "Failure of owner to comply with Compiled Laws, section 5083, providing for
the recording of log marks, was only effective to deprive the owner of the statutory
presumption of ownership of logs unmarked with the recorded mark, and did not
deprive him of his property in logs, the title to which he might establish bj' other
means, including an unrecorded mark used by him." Whitman vs. Muskegon
Log Lifting and Operating Co. Supreme Court of Michigan, 116 Northwestern
614.
372 LOGGING
(the surveyor-general in Minnesota, in most other states the
County Clerk of the county in which the head ofl&ce is located)
brands constitute trademarks of the individuals registering them,
and their rights to the timber so marked are fully protected by
law.
The obliteration or removal of brands or bark marks ("de-
horning") is regarded as a felony in most states. The highest
courts of some states^ hold where logs are presumptively marked
according to law and are floated down a stream, that if the
owners annually endeavor to recover those that sink and
become imbedded in the stream, such logs cannot be regarded
as lost or abandoned property whether the marks are distinguish-
able or not.
Loggers, therefore, do not lose their property rights in lost
logs if originally they were properly marked by the owner, and
he used due diligence each year to recover them. On the other
hand, according to the Supreme Court of Minnesota,- logs in
water are abandoned when not in the possession of or under the
control of any person, and which have no distinctive mark or
marks on them that have been recorded with the proper officials.
Such logs are the property of the person who collects them and
causes them to be marked. These logs are known as "prize"
logs and on union drives they are divided in rotation, as they pass
the sorting gap, among the loggers having timber in the stream.
Where the drive is conducted by a boom company all prize logs
caught in the booms are held as the property of the company and
sold at auction to the highest bidder.
B. SPECIES THAT WILL FLOAT
Although the majority ot species indigenous to the United
States will float to some extent, yet many of them cannot be
transported successfully by water. The coniferous woods are
' See Whitman vs. Muskegon Log Lifting and Operating Co. Supreme Court
of Michigan, ii6 Northwestern 614.
2 See Astell vs. McCuish. Supreme Court of Michigan, 124 Northwestern Re-
porter 458.
FLOATING AND RAFTING 373
the most satisfactory floaters, but among them there are several
species such as yellow pine, green hemlock, and the butts of larch,
redwood and some other species that can be handled only with
indifferent success. The buoyancy of hemlock is increased by
peeling the timber and allowing it to season for a short period
before placing it in the water.
Hardwood logs, such as basswood, poplar and cucumber, float
well and can be driven to advantage, although basswood is
apt to become discolored, which greatly depreciates it in value.
Oak, beech, maple, birch and other heavy hardwoods can only
be floated with difficulty unless they are especially prepared
or are rafted with lighter species. Some loggers cut and peel
oak in July, August, September and October, place it on skids
near the bank and allow it to dry out for from sixty to
ninety days. It then becomes light enough to float for short
periods.
Another method ^ is to peel and season the logs, then paint
the ends with two or three coats of paint and raft with lighter
species. Holes also may be bored into logs and plugged up
so as to form air spaces and increase the buoyancy of the
timber.
White birch for spool stock is sometimes driven for short
distances in Maine. The green timber will float for a short
period, although it is seldom put into the water in this condition.
An effective method is to fell the trees during the summer
months and leave the tops on the trees until a large amount of
moisture has been removed. Again the trees may be felled, the
tops cut off and the timber left in the forest to season for from
eight to twelve months. This method is less satisfactory than
the former because the sap of the logs stains badly during
summer months, if left for long periods.
The following lists show the relative floating ability of several
species.
1 There is a serious objection to this method of handling hardwoods because
their value is usually reduced by checks and incipient rot. Hardwood cut during
the spring or summer must be converted into lumber in a few weeks if the best
results are to be secured.
374
LOGGING
Good floating ability.
Average floating
ability.
Poor floating
ability.
Spruce
Yellow pine
Oak
White pine
Sweet gum
Hickory
Hemlock (dry)
Sj'camore
Birch
Basswood
Douglas fir
Beech
Poplar
Chestnut
Elm
White cedar
Ash
Redwood (except butts)
Cherry
Balsam
Redwood (butts)
Larch (except butts)
Larch (butts)
Cypress
Cucumber
C. LABOR
Labor employed on log drives is chiefly recruited from the
logging camps which have ceased operations b}- the time the
streams are in condition to float timber. Although the work is
hard, the hours are long and the men are often exposed to many
hardships in the pursuit of their work, there is a certain glamour
and fascination about it which attracts forest workers and in nor-
mal times loggers seldom have difiicult}' in securing a sufficient
number of men.
The labor in the Northeastern part of the United States is
largely composed of French Canadiaris who make admirable
river drivers.
Log driving on small streams is done largeh- from the banks,
except where log jams occur, while on large streams the work
must often be done from boats called bateaux ^ or from the logs
themselves. The river drivers are often subject to great per-
sonal danger in freeing lodged logs and in breaking up jams
which form at narrow points in the stream, or in places where
the channel is obstructed by rocks. A "key log" around which
a jam is formed must be freed before the mass can be started,
and this may be done either with tools or by a charge of dyna-
mite. Only the most skillful men are allowed to perform this
work, because great presence of mind is required on the part of
1 These are strongly built boats with a sharp prow and are fitted with two pairs
of oars and guided by a single oar used as a rudder. Thej' have a capacity of
from six to ten men.
FLOATING AND RAFTING 375
the driver when the logs start to move. Log drivers, espe-
cially on rough water, are among the highest paid men in the
woods.^ On small streams log drivers are housed in log camps
or in tents, while on river drives the men frequently Kve in a
house boat or a tent called a "wanigan," which is mounted on
a scow or raft and floated down the stream as the work proceeds.
Tents on shore are also frequently used where facilities can be
provided for moving them in wagons or in boats.
D. CONDUCT OF THE DRIVE
The Drive on Small Streams. — Drives usually start on the
upper courses of some small stream where the logs have been
"banked" in the stream bed, and parallel with it, or else scat-
tered over the surface of spme lake or pond near its mouth.
The "banking ground" is often above a splash dam which
furnishes sufficient water to carry the logs down to the rear of
another dam or to the main stream on which they are floated
to the mill.
As soon as the ice has gone out sufliciently to clear the stream,
booms are placed in essential spots along the channel and the
dams and other equipment placed in good repair after the
winter season. A head of water is accumulated on the banking
ground and a crew is set to work to "break down" the "land-
ing" or "bank."- This consists in* setting the logs afloat in the
current so they can proceed downstream. The sluice gates of
the dams are opened a short while before the logs are started
through and should not be closed until several minutes after
the logs have ceased coming, otherwise jams will form at points
along the channel. The work starts on the pile farthest down-
stream and in the center of the channel, the logs from the top
of the pile being thrown into the water by means of peavies and
^ Log drivers in Maine receive from $2.25 to $3 per day and board, which
includes four meals per day. Drivers on the large streams in the West receive
50 cents per hour, exclusive of board, which costs approximately $5 per week.
2 In the .\ppalachian region, logs frequently are not banked but are scattered in
the beds of the streams where they await a freshet to carry them down the stream.
In such cases a crew to break landing is not required. Dependence is placed on the
current to start the logs.
376
LOGGING
timber grapples. This continues until the drivers have cleaned
a channel wide enough to enable them to roll the remaining logs
from the pile into the stream. After having cleaned up one
section they proceed to loosen the next section above, and are
sometimes obliged to explode a small charge of dynamite to
free the logs which are frozen together. The loose logs float
down to the splash dam where they are converged toward the
sluiceway by bracket booms. Drivers stationed on the latter
Fig. 113. — A Log Driving Crew at the Landing waiting for a Head of Water.
New Hampshire.
keep the logs parallel to the current and prevent them from
jamming when they pass through the sluice. Workmen armed
with peavies and pike poles ^ are stationed at strategic points
along the stream to prevent logs from becoming stranded on
sand bars, and from forming jams on rocks and in narrow places
in the channel.
1 This has an ash or hickory handle, from 12 to 20 feet long, on one end of which
is attached a screw pike and hook. It is very serviceable in controlling logs in
water. The screw pike when forced into a log has a tenacious grip which enables
the workman to exert a strong pull without losing his hold on the log.
FLOATING AND RAFTING 377
Jams and stranded logs can often be moved by the use of a
dog-warp which consists of two strong hooks attached near the
center of a rope stretched across the stream. A crew of three
or four men is stationed on either bank and by catching one or
the other of the hooks into logs the men are able to pull them
in either direction. The use of dynamite is resorted to when
other means fail.
The drive on small streams continues until all of the logs have
left the banking ground. A crew then starts to "pick rear,"
which consists in collecting all the stranded logs along the stream
and in the sloughs and putting them into the water so that they
will go out with the drive. This work is generally done by men
who use timber grapples and peavies for carrying and dragging
the logs. Horses are employed when available and the condi-
tions are suitable for their use.
When the course of the drive is across a lake it is necessary
to confine the logs in booms and tow them to the outlet.
A limber boom called a "trap" or "catch" boom is placed at
the head of the lake around the mouth of the stream and the
logs are confined in it until a sufficient number are secured,
when the shore ends of the boom are closed and the raft is towed
across the lake. The mouth of the stream is either closed tem-
porarily or a second boom is placed in position at once. Where
the distance is short and the amount of timber to be moved is
limited, it is "kedged" or "warped" by "headworks" of the
type shown in Fig. 114. This consists of a rough capstan,
holding from 300 to 400 feet of rope, which is mounted on a
raft, and the latter attached at the forward part of the boom.
A heavy anchor fastened to the free end of the rope is carried
forward in a boat and dropped in the path of the raft. The
capstan is then revolved either by man or horse power. When
the raft reaches the anchor, the latter is lifted and again carried
forward. A headworks of this character cannot be used to ad-
vantage against a head wind.
Large quantities of logs are usually handled by a "steam-
warping tug" or "alligator," which consists of a fiat-bottomed,
steel-shod scow on which is mounted a pair of twenty-horse-
378
LOGGING
power engines and a large capstan or windlass. The boats are
propelled either by twin screws or side wheels and are so con-
structed that they may be drawn overland on ^ids under their
own power. When towing, a cable is fastened to some con-
venient tree on shore or an anchor is thrown out several hun-
dred feet in advance of the raft and the tug then run back and
attached to the raft which is advanced by winding up the cable
on the capstan. Under a favorable wind a tug of this character
will handle 60,000 board feet and under a head wind, 30,000 feet.
Plwlograpli by D. A'. Rogers.
Fig. 114. — A " Headworks " used to tow Log Rafts across Small Lakes.
Maine.
The cost of drives on small streams ranges from 25 to 30
cents per thousand feet for a few miles up to Si. 2 5 for a distance
of from 30 to 50 miles. As a rule transport on small streams is
more expensive per thousand feet per mile than on large ones,
because of the limited amount of timber handled, the rough
character of the channel, and the greater number of improve-
ments per mile that are required.
Individual drives on small streams are in charge of a foreman
who often is the woods superintendent, or the boss of the log-
ging camp at which the timber was cut. One or more sub-
foremen aid him.
FLOATING AND RAFTING 379
The Drive on Large Streams} — The driving problems on por-
tions of the route are often similar to those on small streams,
but in general the difficulties incident to the transport of logs
are not so great.
The channel is wider, with longer stretches of smooth water,
and the greater volume of timber annually passing downstrearn
makes it practicable to improve the channel to a far greater
degree than is feasible with small streams. Fewer men in pro-
portion to the amount of timber handled and the distance cov-
ered are required, and under normal circumstances the expense
per thousand feet for labor is less. A large portion of the
driving work on the average stream consists in the prevention
of jams at curves, on sand bars, at rocky narrows and similar
places, and "picking rear" after the main drive has passed. On
many large streams the banks for a portion of the distance may
be low, so that logs can float out of the channel into sloughs or
over land inundated during flood time, and the drivers must
keep their booms in good condition to prevent this and to keep
the logs moving.
Crews are divided into squads, under subforemen, and are
stationed at danger points along the stream. These crews must
do much of their work from bateaux or by standing on logs,
because of the width of the banks. In place of "alligators" and
"headworks" powerful side wheel, end wheel or screw tugs are
employed for the transport of large quantities of logs across
lakes, or down streams where it is necessary to confine the
logs in booms.
When the head of the drive reaches the first sorting gap, a
crew of men begins sorting and this continues during the
summer and fall until the logs are all assorted, the water fails
or ice closes the river. If no ill luck has attended the drive the
last logs are usually down by October first.
The drive on the upper Connecticut River originating on the
Wild Ammonoosuc in New Hampshire and extending to Bellows
Falls (17 miles on the Ammonoosuc and 93 miles on the Connect-
icut River) begins about the first of April and lasts from twenty-
^ See page 363.
38o
LOGGING
three days to six months. The average time is about six weeks.
One hundred men are required on the Ammonoosuc and about
sixty on the Connecticut River. The cost per thousand feet de-
livered at Bellows Falls for the 1909 drive, which was conducted
under favorable conditions, was $1.18 per thousand feet. In
1908 the cost was $1.71 and in 1907, $1.40, while in some
years it has been nearly $2 per thousand feet. The high cost
is due to the rough character of the Ammonoosuc channel which,
though fairly straight, contains many rocks. The annual
cost of improving the Ammonoosuc has been from $500 to
$700.
On the Penobscot River in Maine, the average length of drive
is approximately 1 50 miles and the longest drive which originates
on either the North or South Branch of the West Branch is
about 240 miles. The average quantity of material annually
driven down the West Branch is 130,000,000 feet, about three-
quarters of which goes to Millinocket, and the remainder to
Bangor and vicinity. The drive begins about April 20th and
the last logs reach the booms above Bangor about October
first. Approximately 2500 men are employed for the first
six weeks and after the logs reach the main stream the force
is cut to about 200 men, exclusive of those occupied at the
sorting gaps.
The cost per thousand feet for driving logs on various portions
of the Penobscot River has been as follows: ^
Year.
1903-
-I9I2
1898-
-1907
1898-
-1907
1898-
-1907
1898-
-1907
1898-
-1907
1898-
-1907
1893-
-1902
I898-I902
Locality.
Head of Chesuncook lake to Shad pond.
Grand lake dam to Penobscot boom . . .
Haskell boom to Penobscot boom
Sebois river to Lincoln
vSebois river to Penobscot boom
Soldier brook to Penobscot boom
Medway to Penobscot boom
Head of Chesuncook lake to Penobscot
boom
Shad pond to Penobscot boom
Distance.
Cost per
1000 feet.
Miles.
60
$0.70
89
.90
84
.82
47
.66
72
•56
62
.62
51
.80
120
1. 17
59
.40
^ "Water Resources of the Penobscot River Basin, Maine," U. S. Geological
Survey. Water Supply Paper, 279, Washington, 1912, p. 211.
FLOATING AND RAFTING 38 1
The cost of handling logs by the St. John River Log Driving
Company in New Brunswick for a distance of 214 miles has been
as follows:
1906 $1.80 per 1000 feet
1907 1.90 per 1000 feet
1908 2.00 per 1000 feet
1909 2.07 per 1000 feet
The cost of the drive itself, exclusive of the sorting and rafting
charges, has been 26 cents per thousand feet.
The Restigouche Log Driving and Boom Company, which
operates on 65 miles of the Restigouche river in New Brunswick,
handles approximately 100,000,000 feet per year. The charges
for 191 2 were as follows: driving to the boom limits, 18 cents per
thousand; rafting charges for merchantable pine and spruce,
55 cents per thousand; undersized pine and spruce, 65 cents per
thousand; cedar, 60 cents per thousand. The rafts are towed
to the mills by the log owners at their own expense.
RAFTING ON STREAMS
Rafting is a common method of handling logs on large streams
and lakes and is practiced in all parts of the United States. The
motive power is usually end-wheel or side-wheel steamers on small
bodies of water, and screw-propelled tugs on large bodies of
water. Rafts are now seldom drifted with the current. The
advantages of rafting are :
(i) It prevents loose logs from scattering and becoming
entangled in bushes along the banks, and from being stranded on
fiats submerged at high water.
(2) It enables the water transport of nonportable species
which can be buoyed up by fastening them to logs that can float.
(3) Extensive booms are not required at destination to catch
the logs as they come down.
(4) It insures prompt delivery on lakes and other waters
where there is no current to carry the logs along.
(5) The Federal Rivers and Harbors Act of March 3, 1899,
declares "that it shall be unlawful to float loose timber or logs
382
LOGGING
in streams actually navigated by steamboats in such manner as
to obstruct, impede, or endanger navigation."
There are a variety of forms in which rafts are built, depending
on the character of the water on which they are to be towed,
the kind of timber rafted and on the Federal regulations ^ gov-
erning rafting.
Bag or Sack Booms. — These are used on the Great Lakes and
on large, smooth rivers. They consist of a single or double row
of boom sticks surrounding the impounded logs. For lake work
Fig. 115. — A Mississippi River Log Rati, showing the Method ot Control by
End-wheel Steamers.
short boom sticks of large size are preferable because loose logs
are less apt to slip under them than they are under the long ones.
On the Great Lakes double booms with connecting chains made
of i|-inch iron are considered superior to single booms. During
the period when the exportation of logs was permitted by the
Provincial Governments of Canada, immense quantities of white
pine were rafted to this country and manufactured at points
along the Great Lakes. The season for towing was from June i
^ The Federal government specifies the form, size and character of rafts that
may traverse certain navigable waters and harbors.
FLOATING AND RAFTING 383
to October 15. The rafts contained from 2,000,000 to 6,000,000
feet each, and were handled by powerful tugs. The transport
of logs from Canada to the United States ceased in 1898 when
an embargo was placed on the export of logs from Crown
Lands.
Rafts Fastened with Poles. — The common form of raft on the
Ohio River and on some southern streams is one in which the
logs are made up into raft sections. The logs in each section
are attached to each other by poles placed across the logs and
fastened to them by means of rafting dogs. The sections are
fastened together by cables.
On the Ohio River poplar and other logs are rafted in lengths
of from 20 to 60 feet. The longer logs are preferred because
Fig. 116. — Method of fastening Poles to the Logs by means of Iron Dogs.
of the greater ease in rafting and also because the laws of
adjoining states allow a fee of 25 cents per stick without regard
to length, to all parties who catch and hold logs for rafting.
On the upper reaches of the Big Sandy River floating logs are
caught and about sixty sticks are made into a raft which is from
eight to twelve logs wide and from 250 to 400 feet long. The
logs are bound together with small poles 20 feet long which are
placed at intervals of from 10 to 12 feet. Rafts are equipped
with long sweeps at each end to assist in guiding them, and
each one is floated down to the mouth of the stream in charge
of two men. The owner makes from twelve to sixteen rafts,
containing from 700 to 900 sticks, into a fleet and takes it down-
stream to the mills under the control of a tug. An occasional
fleet containing from 1900 to 2000 logs is handled which is re-
garded as the maximum size practicable.
384
LOGGING
A modification of this form of raft is occasionally used for
handling yellow pine in the South. The rafts consist of sec-
tions one log long held together by poles which are attached to
Photograph by R. B. Miller.
Fig. 117. — Loading the "Bottom" of a Raft with Logs, by means of a Par-
buckle. A braciiet boom is shown on the left. Xew Brunswick.
the logs by a wooden plug driven into holes bored through the
poles and into the timbers. Several sections are then made
into a raft and floated dowTistream to the mill under the guid-
ance of raftmen who steer with long
sweeps or oars.
On some of the streams in the
Northeast assorted logs are made
into rafts and towed to the mills.
The St. John River Log Driving
Method of Attaching Company of Fredericton, Xew
Rafting Poles to the Logs, by -n • i i •. r^. •
" , „, , ^. 6 , .r Brunswick, makes up its rafts in
means of \\ ooden Pms. ; ^
the following way. The logs after
being assorted are run into pockets according to owTiership.
About thirty logs are fastened together at one end with a ''rat-
tling line" which consists of a cable on which are strung the
Fig. 118.
FLOATING AND RAFTING
385
necessary number of ring dogs. This "joint," as it is called, is
then floated out of the pocket and down the "rattling run" to
the "bottom makers" who place two boom poles across the raft,
and bore holes through the boom poles and logs which are then
fastened together with hardwood pins. The rattling lines are
then removed and the bottom passes down to a loading machine
where a top load of logs is placed on the "bottom." The joints
are then scaled and floated downstream where from five to seven
of them are fastened together by short pieces of poles, called
brackets, and hardwood pins and then towed to the mill by
tugs.
For many years rafts on the Mississippi and some other
rivers in the Lake States were made into "brails" or sections.
The logs were fastened together with
poles in a manner similar to the
Ohio River method, except that rope
and rafting pins were used instead
of chain dogs. Two-inch holes were
bored in the log on either side of the
, ,1 1 r 1 . ^- Fig. no. — Method of fastening
pole and the ends of a short section ^^^^.^^ p^j^^ ^^ Logs by means
of rope placed in these holes and of Rafting Pins. A method for-
firmly held by hardwood rafting merly used on the Mississippi
pins driven in behind them. This
was an expensive method because of the large amount of rope
required, and it has now been superseded by an improved method
patented by an employee of one of the boom companies.
The brails as now made consist of a set of boom sticks form-
ing a rectangular pocket which is filled with loose logs. The
boom sticks are held together by a 3-link chain 10 inches long
(Fig. 120, d) through the outer links of which the pin (Fig. 120, b) is
passed and then driven into 2-inch holes bored in each boom
stick. These pins are made of oak and turned to a minimum
diameter of 2 inches and a length of 11 inches. The top end
has a swell 2j inches in diameter, with a slightly smaller swell
in the center. The head is large enough to prevent the
chain link from slipping over it and the swell in the center
binds on the wood and holds the plug fast. A cable is passed
386
LOGGING
through the center links around the entire brail and further
strengthens it. The brail is braced crosswise with cables as
shown in Fig. 120, a. Several links of chain are fastened, by
means of a rafting pin, to the outer boom sticks on one side of
the raft. On the opposite side of the raft one end of a special
cable, Fig. 120, c, is fastened to the boom stick by a pin and
the other end carried over to the chain, which is passed through
a flattened link and caught. This gives rigidity to the raft.
Fig. 120. — Details of a Mississippi River Log Raft. a. The method of fastening
the boom sticks together, and bracing them with cables, b. A rafting pin in-
serted in the outer links of the chain d. c. The fixed end of the cable which is
used to strengthen the raft. d. 3-link chain through the outer links of which
the rafting pins are driven.
The chains and cables can be used repeatedly and hence are
cheaper than rope which can be used but once. Rafts of this
character are made up in sections, some of them 300 feet by 750
feet in size, and contain from 850,000 to 4,000,000 feet of timber.
They may be controlled in the stream by an end-wheel tug boat
attached to the stern of the raft. A strong double winch is
placed on the bow of the boat and from this lines run to each
forward corner of the raft. By hauling in on one line and
slacking on the other one, the raft may be turned in any direc-
tion desired. Two tugs often are employed, one at the stern
FLOATING AND RAFTING
387
and one at the forward part of the raft, in which case the
control of direction is secured by the forward boat.
Cypress Rafts. — Cypress logs, which are skidded with pull-
boats, are rafted down the canals and bayous. A common
form of raft consists of cigar-shaped sections from 150 to 200
feet long, each containing from twenty to thirty logs which are
floated loose within the boom sticks. Sinkers are placed be-
tween floating logs and fastened to them by poles and chain
dogs. Old skidding cable is often used to bind the boom sticks
together. A 2-inch hole is bored in the log, and the end of the
Fig. 121. — A Cypress Raft in a Louisiana Bayou. Tlic floating vegetation on the
extreme right is the water hyacinth.
cable inserted and made fast by a wooden plug driven in be-
hind it. The sections are fastened together by rope, and made
into a long raft which is towed to the mill by small tugs. Navi-
gation is seriously hampered and sometimes absolutely stopped
by the congestion of the watercourses by the water hyacinth
and sometimes mills are forced to shut down on account of the
lack of logs, due to the closing of the waterways by this plant.
Raft Bundles. — In the Coastal Plain region logs are sometimes
made into bundles each containing two cars of logs (20 to 30
logs) which are bound together firmly with chains. The maxi-
mum tow for the larger tugs used on this work is from thirty to
388
LOGGING
forty bundles. From 30 to 40 per cent of the timber cannot
be floated and the object of this method of transportation is to
make the floaters carry the nonfloaters. Bundles frequently
have to be made over because of an excess of heavy logs which
Fig. 122. — A Raft Bundle at the Mill Pond. North Carolina.
causes them to sink. The bundles are constructed at a log dump
built over some tidal stream. A cradle of two heavy cables is
used to bundle the logs. One end of the cable is fastened to the
railroad trestle, and then passed down under the water and up to
FLOATING AND RAFTING 389
a winch located in the second story of the log dump. The cables
thus make a large loop into which the logs are unloaded. Two
binding chains are sunk into the water alongside each cable, one
end being temporarily attached to the unloading dock and the
other end to a small rope which is placed outside of the cradle.
When the logs have been placed in the latter, the bundle is made
compact by tightening up the cradle cables, and the binding
chains are then brought around the bundle, tied and made fast
by heavy iron dogs.
Pacific Coast Rafting. — Logs in the Pacific Coast region are
often rafted down the large streams, or towed along Puget
Sound to the mills. Two forms of rafts are employed for this
work. When logs a^^e to be floated downstream without the aid
of a tug, they are made up into "round" booms which consist
of a group of loose logs surrounded by several boom sticks. The
raft is allowed to drift with the current, and may or may not be
in charge of a raftsman, depending on the character of the stream,
and the tides.
Logs that are to be towed to destination are rafted at a ''harbor
boom," which consists of a large storage pocket and a rafting
pocket. The logs are brought to the harbor boom by rail and
dumped into the storage pockets which consist of an area in-
closed by boom sticks held in place by piling. The rafting
pockets are narrow lanes about 75 feet wide and from 800 to
1000 feet long inclosed by boom sticks, held in place by piling
placed at approximately 70-foot intervals. The logs may or may
not be sorted for quality and species previous to rafting. Rafting
on tide water can be carried on only during a favorable tide.
The rafters first string boom sticks across the far end and on
both sides of the pocket. Logs of approximately equal lengths
are then poled down the run and stowed parallel to each other
in the first section of boom sticks. Each row is known as a
"tier," and two tiers usually constitute a section about 75 feet
square. As soon as two tiers have been stowed logs, called
" swifters," are placed across the end of the section at right
angles to the tiers in order to keep the logs closely packed. The
gap is then closed by a boom stick placed across the opening and
390 LOGGING
attached to the boom sticks on the outer side of the raft. New
sections are then made up in the same manner, twelve to four-
teen constituting the usual tow. Two rafters can make up
about six sections or from 260,000 to 300,000 feet during a tide.
When the rafting is done in rivers where there is a strong
current a slightly different procedure is followed. The rafters
start at the near end of the rafting pocket and hang out three or
four sections of boom sticks. The logs are then run in the rafting
pocket and guided with a pike pole to their place in the ''tier."
Great difficulty is experienced in turning logs end on in a swift
current, if they get crosswise of the rafting pocket. In case
piling is not used to confine the rafts, each section is kept from
spreading until completed by the use of a rope or cable also
called a "swifter" which is fastened to the outside boom sticks.
WTien the sections are completed the "swifters" are removed.
The cost of unloading and rafting logs is approximately 10
cents per thousand feet, and the cost of towing to the mill
averages i cent per mile for each thousand feet.
OCEAN RAFTING
The first attempt at rafting logs for transport on the high seas
was made about 1884 when a large raft was constructed in
Xova Scotia, launched from shore and started toward Xew York
in charge of a tug. This raft was lost because the tug left it
to go into port for toal and on return to the high seas was unable
to again locate it. After a long period it washed ashore on the
Norwegian Coast. The same builder later went to Coos Bay,
Oregon, where he built two rafts for transport to San Francisco,
one of which reached its destination safely. In the construction
of the latter rafts the use of cradles or floating frames was first
adopted.
In 1894, raft building began on the Columbia river, where it
has reached its highest development. Several rafts now leave
annually for San Diego, CaHfornia, with no losses during recent
years. The rafts are built cigar-shaped and from 700 to 1000
feet long, with a depth at the center of from 30 to 35 feet and
FLOATING AND RAFTING 391
a breadth of from 50 to 60 feet. The taper extends 100 feet
from each end.
Ocean-going rafts are built in a cradle or frame which is
moored to piling in deep water. One side of the cradle is de-
tachable and when the raft is completed it is launched by dropping
this side and allowing the raft to slide sidewise into the water.
A 700-foot cradle requires 200,000 feet of timber in its construc-
tion, and costs about $5000. With minor repairs it can be used
for an indefinite period. A derrick hoisting engine, mounted
on a scow, and valued at $5000 is necessary for stowing logs in
the cradle. A crew of five or six raftsmen is required.
The logs are floated out to the cradle and, beginning at either
end of the latter, the longest and most pliable sticks are used
for the outer layers. These sticks should be at least 60 feet
long and are placed with their butts toward the center of the
raft. This gives a taper to the body of the raft and as the logs
gradually work outward the binding chains are drawn tighter.
The interior may be filled with any length logs, provided the
joints are broken.
After the raft has been built up to a height of 20 feet, a 21-
inch tow chain is laid from stem to stern with 50 feet projecting
on either end to which the towing cable is attached. "Herring
bone" chains, made from if -inch iron, are then attached to
the main tow chain on the tapering ends of the raft, run diago-
nally across the raft toward either end, and fastened to the bind-
er chains. This prevents the latter from slipping on the conical
portion of the raft, distributes the pull of the tow chain over
a large portion of the stern, and also gives a limited amount of
slack in the center, which is essential to permit the raft to bend
slightly with the action of the waves.
When the raft is completed, binder chains made from i|-inch
iron are placed entirely around it at 12-foot intervals and are
tightened by the hoisting engine. A 700-foot raft containing
from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 feet requires about 115 tons of
chain, which, with accessories, is valued at $10,000. A 30-foot
raft draws from 20 to 22 feet of water and can be towed to
wSan Diego, 1200 miles, for $1 per thousand feet.
392 LOGGING
The safe towing periods are from June 15 to September 15
and, under favorable conditions, the trip can be made in from
eighteen to twenty days. I
LOG BARGES
Barges are used for the transportation of hardwood logs on
some portions of the lower Mississippi River, the logs being
brought to the banks of the stream and loaded by power derricks.
Barge transportation is desirable on streams where suitable
rafting facilities are not available and with species that are
too heavy to float. Although introduced in the Lake States,
this method never gained much favor in the transport of logs
from Canada to the United States, because of the hmited capac-
ity of the boats, and the ease and safety with which logs could
be rafted.
SUNKEN LOGS
Many streams, on which driving has been carried on for years,
have accumulated great numbers of small, heavy butted and
sappy logs in their channels. In the Lake States streams, which
contain immense quantities of sunken timber, the ''deadheads"
average about twenty logs per thousand feet, log scale.
Numerous eft'orts have been made to salvage sunken timber,
especially in this region, and although log-raising companies
have been formed and have operated to a limited extent, the in-
dustry has never assumed large proportions. The obstacles in
the way of successful operation have been numerous. Accord-
ing to a decision^ of the Supreme Court of Michigan the title to
sunken logs remains with the original owners. Where several
hundred marks and brands have been used on a stream, it is
almost hopeless for a company to attempt to secure title to all
the timber raised because many of the owners of given brands
and marks are deceased or have left the region. In addition
the log raiser must reckon with riparian owners which is a further
drawback to the work.
There have been numerous methods used in raising logs,
some of which have been patented. On shallow streams they
1 See page 371.
FLOATING AND RAFTING 393
are often raised by workmen who use pike poles and operate from
boats. The logs are towed to land, where they are stored until
thoroughly dry, when they are again put in the stream and
rapidly driven to their destination.
A hoisting engine with suitable booms and grapples, mounted
on a flat boat, has also been used. The logs were frequently
rafted and kept afloat by steel tubular buoys 32 feet long by 18
inches in diameter which were scattered throughout the raft.
Occasionally deadheads were attached to rafts of floating timber
and thus buoyed up until they reached the mill.
White pine deadheads have been sold for as much as $5 per
thousand as they lie in the stream, although the average price
is approximately $4 per thousand feet, log scale.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER XXII
A Digest of the Laws Relating to Logging which have been Enacted in the
Dii5erent States. Polk's Lumber Directory, 1904-05. R. L. Polk and Co.,
Chicago. Pages 96-150E.
Barrows, H. K. and Babb, C. C: Log Driving and Lumbering. Water
Resources of the Penobscot River, Maine. Water Supply Paper 279, U. S.
Geological Survey, Washington, 1912, pp. 211-220.
Bridges, J. B.: Definition of the Law Governing the Use of Driving Streams.
The Timberman, August, 1910, pp. 64F and 64G.
— : Laws Governing the Use of Streams for Logging Purposes
(Pacific Coast). The Timberman, August, 1909, pp. 49-51.
Fastabend, John A.: Ocean Log Rafting. The Timberman, August, 1909,
PP- 38-39-
CHAPTER XXIII
FLUMES AND LOG SLLICES
Log and lumber flumes, and log sluices are built to transport
lumber, crossties, shingle bolts, acid wood, cordwood, pulp-
wood, mine timbers and saw logs from the forest to mills, rail-
roads or driveable streams, and to carry products from the
mill to market, or to rail transport. They are used to a limited
extent in every forest region, but are especially serviceable
where stream transportation is not available and when the
topography renders railroad construction costly. They are most
commonly employed for handhng sawed products, although they
are now being used in some parts of the West for transporting
mine timbers and saw logs.
They have several advantages over logging railroads in a
rough region: (i) they can be carried over inequalities in the
ground, or across gulches on fairly light trestles; (2) they can
be operated on steeper grades; (3) they occupy less space than
a railroad and hence require smaller cuts and tunnels and can
often be located in narrow canyons where there is not sufficient
room for a railroad.
The disadvantages are: (i) the transport of crooked and
long, logs is difficult and costly; (2) the light construction ren-
ders them more subject than railroads to damage by windstorms,
fires, floods, falling timber and other natural agencies, although
they can be repaired more cheaply; (3) they usually offer no
means of transporting supplies from the railroad to the mill or
forest; however, in one instance the edges of the flume box were
used as a track over which railroad speeders were run, thus
affording ready communication between the two ends of the
flume; (4) the transport of lumber roughens the surface of
planed material and also batters the ends of the boards which
have to be trimmed after leaving the water so that planing mill
394
FLUMES AND LOG SLUICES
395
work must be done at some point below the flume, often leading
to increased cost of manufacture. ■
LOCATION
Flume routes are best located by engineers who have special-
ized on logging. The practice followed by some successful flume
builders is to locate the route with a transit and set stakes as
for a railroad survey. Levels are then run and plotted and the
grade line established, the latter being the cut-oft" height of the
trestle bent which is the bottom of the cap. Center stakes for
the bents are established at proper intervals, and following this
the grade stakes are set for the batter-post mud-sills. The
data for the base of each trestle bent are calculated for the use
of the constructors, and show the length of the two lower sash
braces, the distance along the batter posts, and the length
each batter post must extend below the first sash brace in order
that the trestle may stand plumb on the mud-sill. The calcu-
lation of the length of each sash brace is important because
it governs the batter of the posts and if it is not properly
calculated the spacing between the posts under the cap will
vary.
Careful consideration must be given to curves and the maxi-
mum degree of curvature must be determined for the longest
material that is to be handled. The following table ^ of curva-
tures for flumes is regarded as safe.
Maximum length
of material to be
run.
Safe maximum
degree of curva-
ture.
Feet.
8
Degrees.
20
40
60
80
10
8
- 6
100
4
Curves at the base of steep grades should be avoided, because
jams will form which will not onl}' damage the flume but will
1 From Lumber Flumes, bj' Francis R. Steel, Bui. of the Harvard Forest Club,
Vol. I, 191 1.
396
LOGGING
also cause the lumber to leave it. The maximum degree of
curvature permissible increases with the grade but diminishes
rapidly as the grade falls under 3 per cent. The following
table ^ of minimum grades is considered safe.
Degree of curve.
Safe minimum
grade.
Straight
4 degrees
6 degrees
8 degrees
10 degrees
Per cent.
0-5
1 .0
1-5
2 .0
2-5
The most desirable grades for a straight flume are 3 per
cent or more. Grades up to 75 per cent may be employed on
short stretches, provided all sharp changes in elevation have
properly proportioned vertical curves.
TYPE OF BOX
There are two general types of flume and sluice boxes. One
is V-shaped and may have a "backbone"- which makes a box
6 or 8 inches wide at the base, with outwardh' sloping sides.
The other is known as the box flume.
The choice of t\-pe and size of box depend on the character
and size of material to be transported, the amount of water
available, and the ultimate use of the water itself. In some
instances when water from flumes is used for irrigation pur-
poses, the box is of larger size than is required for the sole pur-
pose of transporting forest products.
Lumber and log flumes rest on skids on the ground or are
elevated on trestles. They sometimes pass through tunnels or
cuts although these are avoided whene\'er possible because of
the increased cost of construction.
V-box. — This t>pe of box is commonly employed for lumber,
crossties, small dimension stock, small round mine timbers,
^ From Lumber Flumes, by Francis R. Steel, Bui. of the Harvard Forest Club,
Vol. I, 1911.
^ A triangular strip fastened in the vertex of the flume box.
FLUMES AND LOG SLUICES
397
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398 LOGGING
pulpwood,^ and, when built of large size, for saw logs,^ With a
backbone it requires less water than any other t}^e.
A box with a vertex angle of 90 degrees is regarded as the
most desirable since this angle permits the cheapest construction
because the joints can be fitted more easily and the lumber used
to better advantage.
An objection sometimes raised to the use of a V-box for the
transport of shingle bolts and like material is that the individual
pieces are uneven in size and weight and do not all travel at the
same speed, therefore they are apt to double on low grades and
on curves.
The V-flume with a backbone is considered the more desirable
form for a mixed cut of lumber and dimension stock. The
capacity of a flume of this character does not exceed 100,000
feet daily, with an average of from 40,000 to 50,000 feet.
The box of a V-flume for lumber and crossties has sides
ranging from 15 to 18 inches high and is from 30 to 36 inches
wide at the top (Fig. 123, A and B). The backbone when added
is made from a 6- by 6-inch or 8- by 8-inch timber sawed
diagonally. The side boards of the box are i inch in thickness
for sides up to 30 inches in height, i^ inches if from 30 to
36 inches high, and 2 inches if from ^6 to 48 inches high.
The cracks are battened with i- by 4-inch or i- by 6-inch strips.
The boards range in width from 8 to 14 inches, but are usually
1 A pulpwood flume operated in the Adirondack Mountains of northern New
York was 36 inches across the top and 36 inches deep. It was supported on a
trestle which in places was 100 feet high. The flume was 2I miles long, had a
capacity of sixty cords of 18-inch pulpwood per hour, and the bolts traversed the
distance in 7I minutes, dropping into a stream down which they were driven to
a pulp mill.
2 A 5-mile log flume (Fig. 123, D) was recently constructed in Idaho with an
average grade of 11 per cent, a maximum grade of 15 per cent, and a maximum
curvature of 20 degrees. The box was supported on trestles 16 feet apart with 4- by
8-inch sills, posts, and caps and 2- by 6-inch braces; 5- by lo-inch stringers with
2- by 6-inch lateral braces and round pole supports in the center of each bent;
4- by 6-inch bracket sills spaced from 2 to 4 feet apart depending on the weight
carried and the strength required at loading points, and 3- by 6-inch braces. The
box was made from 2-inch rough lumber with the cracks battened with i|- by
4-inch strips. The cost of the flume complete was about $8,000 per mile. See
The Timberman, August, 1912, pp. 42-44. See note on page 411.
FLUMES AND LOG SLUICES
399
from 12 to 14 inches. The lengths are commonly 16 and 24
feet.
Box Flumes. — These are used for lumber and dimension
stock (Fig. 123, C), shingle bolts, pulpwood and logs.^ They are
more expensive to construct than a V-flume because the greater
weight of water carried necessitates a heavier trestle. Where
Fig. 124. — -A V-Flume fur iransporting Mining StuUs. Montana.
the water supply is abundant, boxes of this character are some-
times used for lumber transport. A box flume- in California
^ See note on page 412.
2 This flume was started in 1891 by the Fresno Flume and Irrigation Company
for irrigation purposes and now is 65 miles in length, connecting the sawmill at
Shaver with the planing mill and shipping depot at Clovis. Near the head the
flume box is rectangular and has sides 12 inches high and a width of 48 inches. On
the steep mountain pitches the sides are 32 inches high, and on the lower end
48 inches high. The maximum grade is 4J per cent and the minimum grade on
the flats 0.5 per cent.
400 LOGGING
transports 300,000 board feet daily, a quantity three times as
great as the maximum for a V- flume. This increase is made
possible by clamping^ from five to six boards together into a unit
which is floated singly on the steeper grades toward the head of
the flume. On the low grades near the lower terminus from
twenty-five to thirty units are "dogged" together with manila
rope and floated to destination.
For shingle bolts, acid wood, and cord wood a box with a
lo-inch bottom, 20-inch sides and 24 inches across the top is
sometimes employed. In northern New York a flume of this
size handled sixty cords of spruce pulpwood per hour. As a
rule, however, they are larger with a base of approximately 20
inches, sides from 16 to 20 inches high and a width across the top
of from 30 to 32 inches. The boxes are supported on trestle work
similar to that used for the V-flume, although the construction is
stronger.
The boxes of log sluices (Fig. 1 23, £) are of larger size than those
for lumber flumes and carry more water. They are used chiefly
to supplement stream driving by transporting logs through rocky
gorges where an excessive amount of water would otherwise be
required or where boulders prevent the profitable improvement of
the stream for loose driving, and for transporting logs over
stretches of streams whose banks are so low that the flood
waters scatter the logs over the lowlands. They are also
used in connection with log haul-ups to transport logs from
one watershed to another, and, in some cases, to transport
logs directly from the forest to the mill. They have been
employed frequently in the Lake States and occasionally in the
Northeast.
On account of the large amount of water they must carry to
float logs and because of the wear-and-tear they receive, the
boxes are made of strong material supported on cribwork which
is kept as near the ground as is feasible.
^ The clamp which is patented is a bar of ^-inch half-round iron, with a i-inch
flat face having recurved points at each end. The boards are made into piles with
the ends flush with each other, a clamp is slipped over the end, and a wedge driven
between two boards near the center of the unit. This drives the points into the
outer boards and binds the whole load together.
FLUMES AND LOG SLUICES 401
Sluice boxes are sometimes made with two thicknesses of 2-inch
plank, the inner set being surfaced and tongued and grooved to
insure a tight joint, while the outer set of plank break joints with
the inner and make a tight box. The dimensions of a sluice
of this character built in the Lake States for white pine were
36 inches in width at the base, 108 inches wide across the top,
and 60 inches high. The water in the sluice was controlled by
half-moon gates (Fig. 102), located at the mouth of storage
reservoirs.
TRESTLES
Trestles may be built of round timber or of 2- by 6-inch or
4- by 8-inch sawed material. Flumes used for transporting sawed
material usually have a trestle made from square-edged material,
because it can be secured at the mill and transported to the place
of construction in the completed portion of the flume. Where
logs, pulp wood, acid wood, and other rough material are trans-
ported from the forest to the manufacturing plant, round timber
from 8 to 1 2 inches in diameter is often used for trestle construc-
tion for it can usually be secured in the vicinity, although some
prefer to erect a portable sawmill at the head of the flume and
manufacture lumber for its construction.
Caps for round timber trestles are either made from small
timber hewed on opposite faces to the desired thickness or from
sawed material. Stringers are usually made from sawed timber.
The braces for round timber trestles are made from small
poles.
For square-edged timber trestles caps are made from 2- by 6-,
4- by 4-, or 4- by 6-inch material, and stringers from 4- by 4-, 4-
by 6-, or 6- by 6-inch timbers, the choice depending on the size
of the box, the distance between trestle bents and the amount of
water carried.
Braces for the box are placed along the stringers at 2-, 4-, or
8-foot intervals, depending on the length of the span, the form of
the box,^ and the strength required at special points, such as
1 A V-box with a backbone for fluming lumber requires bracing only at 8-foot
intervals, while a box flume should have braces every 4 feet on a 24-foot span.
Loading points on log flumes are often braced at 2-foot intervals.
402
LOGGING
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FLUMES AND LOG SLUICES
403
loading stations. They may be made from 2- by 4-inch joists or
from solid 4-inch blocks (Fig. 123, A and B).
Fig. 126. — a Five Leg Trestle for Heights Greater than 75 Feet.
A practical type of trestle^ for a lumber flume under 75 feet
in height consists of two legs made from 2- by 6-inch joists,
doubled and braced (Fig. 125). For heights greater than 75 feet
a trestle with five legs is used (Fig. 126).
1 Designed by F. M. Kettenring, C. E., Vancouver, Washmgton.
404
LOGGING
Two 4- by 6-inch stringers rest on the caps which are spiked
to the trestle. Solid braces which support the sides of the V-box
are placed on the stringers at 8-foot intervals. The details of
the brace and other features of the box are shown in Fig. 123, A.
TERMINALS
Flume terminals are of several different t}-pes. The choice
is dependent largely on the kind of material handled and its
Fig. 127. — The Terminal of a Log Flume, near the Deerlodge National Forest,
Montana. This type is known as an " elephant."
disposal at destination. Logs, pulpwood and rough stock are
often dumped into streams, thus obviating the necessity for any
special form of terminal.
On the Allen flume ^ in the Deerlodge National Forest in
Montana round mining timbers are transported to a storage
depot where they are loaded on cars and hauled to destination.
The flume is about 20 feet high at the dump and the logs are shot
out onto rollers on a platform. These carry the logs to the point
1 See note on page 413.
FLUMES AND LOG SLUICES 405
where they are rolled onto cars. The water from the flume
falls onto a waterwheel which drives the rollers when the latter
are thrown into gear.
Another type of terminal, known as the "elephant, " is shown
in Fig. 127. The flume forks several times near the terminal
and forms branches. Logs are diverted into a given branch by
closing the branches not in use, and the logs are run out to the
end of the terminal and fall in a rough-and-tumble heap below.
The t^'pe of terminal shown in A, Fig. 128, is often used when
lumber is dumped on platforms or loading stations. Lumber
shoots out from the end of the flume and piles up on the platform
at the base of the terminal. When one side becomes filled the
shunt board is turned and the lumber diverted to the opposite
side.
A form of terminal similar to B, Fig. 128, may be used for
crossties and hea\y timber. The timbers are removed by hand
from the rollers and piled on the unloading platform or on trucks.
COXSTRUCTIOX
The general methods of constructing a V-flume are illustrated
by one built in Washington for the transport of 40,000 board
feet of lumber and crossties daily. The product to be handled
ranged in length from 8 to 32 feet.
The flume had a maximum height of 128 feet, maximum
curves of 8 degrees, and a 3 per cent grade on the upper part and
0.66 per cent on the lower end. Lumber floated at the rate
of 3 miles per hour.
Bents were placed 15.75 ^^^t apart for heights of 6^, feet and
under, and 23.5 feet apart for heights in excess of this. The
batter posts on all trestles under 75 feet were spaced 4 feet apart
at the cap, and for heights greater than this 5 feet. The batter
in all cases was i in 4. In the bent construction only three
sizes of lumber were used, namely, i- by 6-inch, 2- by 6-inch,
and 2- by 4-inch, the latter being used for the fore-and-aft brac-
ing. As a rule only 16- and 24-foot lengths were used, because
this simplified the work, reduced the time lost in handling, and
very little lumber was wasted. A "select common" grade of
4o6
LOGGING
n-p
i«
6 6
'1
1
. 11^ '
|l
^i t--i t*-
1
>Ki-
o o
O 0
±
a,
FLUMES AND LOG SLUICES 407
lumber was used, which was worth $12 per thousand. The
first 24 feet of each bent was framed on the ground, the foot of
each batter post being laid on or near the mud-sill on which it
was to rest. Bracing was made from i- by 6-inch and 2- by
6-inch material. When ready, the bent was hoisted in place,
and set on the mud-sills by the aid of a block and tackle attached
near the top of the nearest bent. When in position it was
plumbed up and spiked to the mud-sill. A 2- by 6-inch by 16-
foot timber was then placed against the outside of each post and
securely nailed to it with 20-penny spikes. Fore-and-aft braces
(Fig. 125) were then nailed on until the top of the 16-foot post
was reached when another 2- by 6-inch by 16-foot timber was
set on top of the first post with a lap of 8 feet on the inner
one. More fore-and-aft braces were then placed. The addi-
tion of 2- by 6-inch by 24-foot scantling continued, with proper
bracing, until the cut-off height was reached. On the 15.75-
foot span a block and tackle was used on each batter post for
elevating the material when the height became too great for
handing it up. On the 2 3. 5 -foot span lines were also hung on
the rear bent to aid in raising the 24-foot fore-and-aft braces.
The cut-off point of the bent was established only when sev-
eral hundred feet of trestle had been built. A wye level was
then placed on a staging built on top of a bent and the line of
levels established by it. The 2- by 6-inch caps were elevated
and placed in position as soon as the posts were cut off.
Cross-bracing was put on after several hundred feet of trestle
was erected (Fig. 125). Bents exposed to the wind were also
strengthened by wire guys.
The construction crew consisted of from six to eight men, four
of whom worked aloft continuously. On low work one man
handled and sent up all lumber and another was engaged in
framing the lower sections.
The lumber was hauled as near as possible to the point where
it was to be used, and was sorted and piled where it could be
reached with the least delay. One man built the boxes in 16-
or 24-foot sections at the upper end of the flume, placed the
brackets inside each section, and placed it and the 4- by 6-inch
4o8
LOGGING
Stringers and the foot planks in the flume ready to float to
the front. A man walked the flume and kept the material
moving.
Two top men at the front placed the stringers and foot planks
in position, trimmed the boxes, set them in place, adjusted the
brackets and nailed them to the boxes. A crew of four men
placed from twenty to twenty-five 1 6-foot sections in ten hours.
This did not include an 8-inch top board on the box which
was not added until the remainder of the flume box was com-
plete.
Cost of Construction. — The cost of flumes is governed by the
location survey charge, by the labor charge, which depends chiefly
upon the height of the flume, by the values of the material,
and by the cost of transporting the supplies to the flume site.
AMOUNTS OF LUMBER, NAILS AND DAYS' LABOR REQUIRED
TO CONSTRUCT LUMBER FLUME TRESTLES OF
VARIOUS HEIGHTS
Height in feet.
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Lumber, board feet .
Nails, pounds
Labor, days
I.O
O.IO
1-75
O.IO
75
2.0
O.IO
125
3-75-
0.20
200
50
0.40
350
' 7-0
0.50
500
9-5
0.60
600
10.5
0.70
Height in feet.
50
55
60 65
70
75
80
Lumber, board feet .
Nails, pounds
Labor, days
750
12.0
1. 00
1000
17.0
1-30
1300
20.5
1.60
1500
250
1 .90
1750
31.0
2.30
2000
35-0
2.70
2150
40.5
3- 10
Height in feet.
85
90
95
100
los
no
115
Lumber, board feet .
Nails, pounds
Labor, days
2350
47.0
3-9°
2550
51-0
4.8
2750
57-0
S-S
3000
61. 5
6.25
3250
76.0
7.00
3450
90.0
7.70
3850
112. 0
9.00
FLUMES AND LOG SLUICES 409
The cost of engineering work is from $100 to Si 40 per mile;
and the cost of construction, including labor, material and right-
of-way, from $1000 to $3000.^
Labor on flume construction averages from 30 to 40 cents
per hour for men who work aloft and from 25 to 27^ cents for
ground men.
The number of days' labor, the pounds of nails and the thou-
sand board feet of lumber required to build trestles^ of specified
heights and of the t}pes shown in Figs. 125 and 126 is given in
the preceding table.
The construction of the box and foot-boards required 68,485
board feet of lumber and approximately 2800 pounds of nails,
per mile. The cost of box construction averaged $320 per
mile.
The average cost of short lumber flumes where high trestles
are not required and no special difficulties attend the work,
does not exceed from $1200 to $1400 per mile; log flumes cost
from $6000 to $8000 per mile; and log sluices from $2000 to
$4000. On the other hand certain sections of a flume built in
the Big Horn mountains of Wyoming for bringing out crossties,
mine timbers, and lumber cost S9000 per mile for four miles,
and $5000 per mile for an additional five miles. The high
cost of construction was due to the difficult engineering prob-
lems involved, including the construction of two tunnels, heavy
trestles and the building of the flume along the precipitous
sides of gorges.
Several box and V-flumes,-^ in California, which extend for
distances of from 50 to 70 miles, have cost S5000 and upward
per mile.
1 See Lumber Flumes, by Francis R. Steel. Bulletin of the Harvard Forest
Club, Vol. I, 191 1.
2 Designed by F. A. Kettenring, C. E. Vancouver, Washington.
' .\ V-flume with 36-inch sides and a width across the top of 46 inches was built
in 1899-1900 in California, by the Madera Sugar Pine Company. The flume was
originally 53I miles in length and cost $275,000 to construct, an average of S5000
per mile. Appro.ximately 5,700,000 feet of redwood lumber and 2100 kegs of nails
were used in construction. The maximum grades were 18 per cent and lumber
traversed the flume at the rate of 6 miles per hour. The daily capacity is approxi-
mately 100,000 feet.
4IO LOGGING
OPERATION
The amount of water required for a flume depends on the size
of the box, the grade and the amount of leakage. On steep
grades a flume requires less water than on low grades because
the flume box becomes a wet slide and the logs run freely with
very little water. The age of the flume and the care with
which it is maintained largely determine the amount of leakage.
Forest Service officials found that on the Allen flume in Mon-
tana which carries from 5 to 12 second feet of water the leak-
age averaged 0.3 second feet per mile. They estimate that the
average leakage in a flume in good condition, carrying 5 to 10
second feet of water, will approximate 0.45 second feet per mile.
Water is admitted from ponds or branch flumes at the head
of the main flume and also from feeders or troughs located at
numerous points along the route. These feeders run from the
main stream or some of its branches. If the water supply is
limited, every effort is made to keep the flume box tight to
prevent waste. This is not so essential, however, where water
can be turned in at frequent intervals.
The products are placed in the flume boxes by various means.
Sawed lumber and crossties are usually shunted into the flume
from an incline at the tail of the mill. Pulpwood and acid wood
are frequently rolled or thrown into the box from skidways or
floated in from ponds ; w^hile logs may be rolled in from skidways,
floated in from artificial storage ponds, or elevated by log loaders.
The use of ponds is the simplest and cheapest method, while
the use of a log loader is the more expensive.
Flumes are operated by crews that feed the flume ; by runners
who are stationed at points along the route where jams are apt
to occur; and by laborers who handle the product at the ter-
minal. The runners usuaUy carry a pick-a-roon to aid in han-
dling the floating material. The size of crew required depends
entirely on the character of the flume, those with many curves
and low grades requiring the most runners.
On the Allen flume in Montana, which is about 16 miles long,
thirty flume tenders are required for handling about 3500 mining
stulls and logs daily. Four men feed the flume and twenty-six
FLUMES AND LOG SLUICES
411
men patrol it, the greater number being required where the flume
crosses the Continental Divide on a very low grade. The daily
cost of operation is $90, an average of 77I cents per thousand
feet.
On the American Gulch flume ^ in the same section five men
are required on a flume about one mile long. Two men feed
the flume and three men act as patrols. The daily run averages
from 800 to 1 1 00 mining stulls and the cost of operation varies
from 80 to 95 cents per thousand feet.
A box log-flume, in Oregon, three and one-half miles long,
handles an average of 150,000 feet daily. Ten men are required
to operate the flume and the cost is 25 cents per thousand for
labor and 5 cents per thousand for depreciation.
NOTES TO CHAPTER XXIU
Page 398. The log flume shown in Fig. 1 23, Z), requires the following material per
mile for construction where the trestle legs are 7 feet in length.
LUMBER NAILS
Purpose for which used.
Quantity.
Size.
Quantity.
Mud sills:
Board feet.
13,200
19,140
9,240
7,260
6,600
42,240
18,480
7.095
23,880
96,800
17,600
2,640
10,560
11,265
1 2 penny . . .
Pounds.
1700
1075
390
3625
6790
Posts
16 penny
Caps
Cross braces
20 penny
40 penny
Lateral braces
Stringers
Brackets:
Sills
Braces
Arms
Box boards
Battens
Bracket sills
Running boards
Waste in construction. . .
Total
Total
286,000
Page 399. A box flume 35 miles long for the transportation of logs is in use in
Oregon. The problem confronting the operator was to transport timber out of a
rolling plateau region down to a mill several miles distant. Owing to the rough
character of the country the cost of railroad construction was prohibitive. The
engineering problems encountered were not easy to solve because the water supply
during the lowest stages did not exceed 100 miners' inches and extraordinary
efforts had to be made to conserve it. Some canyons from which timber was to
' See note on page 413.
412 LOGGING
be transported had no. available water in them and it was necessarj- to build the
flume from one watershed to another to get the timber out.
The preliminary work consisted of a survey of the whole route and a verj' careful
determination of the levels. The construction work was begun at the mill and
carried forward each year as required to secure the requisite amoimt of timber.
The first section of the flume was built nearly on a dead level, but as the work
progressed a grade of i inch in loo feet was given.
The natural gradient greatly exceeded that given to the flume and it was neces-
sar>- to build the latter in three units, each ending in a V-shaped chute which led
from the flume to a pond at a lower elevation. These ponds were about 75 bj' 100
feet in size and were located at points where the natural conditions favored their
construction. They not only served as a storage reservoir for water and a point
for the change in grade of the flume but also as a place for logs to enter the flume.
The grade line was kept as near the ground as possible in order to avoid expen-
sive trestle work and cuts. However, some cuts could not be avoided and trestles.
had to be built when the flume crossed canyons or other depressions.
The flume box was constructed of 2- by 1 2-inch plank and was 6 feet wide and
4 feet deep, except on sharp cur\-es where it was wider. The normal depth of the
water was 3J feet. Trestles were built of sawed timbers and braces of the same
size timbers were placed along the box at 3-foot intervals. A running board
extended along one side of the box for the use of flume tenders. Lumber for
building the flume was cut in a portable mill which was kept as near the actual
construction point as was practicable. This reduced the charge for transport of
flume material. Each flume unit was provided with three hft gates suspended
from the center of a beam which was supported by two upright posts placed oa
either side of the flume. One gate was used for the control of the water and the
other two for emergency purposes. Should an accident happen to the gate ia
use, or a log become jammed in it, one or both of the others could be closed and a
waste of water prevented. The gates were opened by hfting them with a lever
until they cleared a 2-inch cleat nailed across the bottom of the flume when the
force of the water raised them to a horizontal position. They were then supported
by 2- by 4-inch joists, which were placed across the flume.
In the spring of the year an abundance of water was available and a slight
current was created in the flume by keeping open a small extra gate. During this
season the logs were floated loose and only an occasional man was needed to keep
them moving and to prevent jams. In the summer and fall the water was at a low
stage and the logs were dogged together in strings of from 50 to 75 (10,000 to 15,000
feet, log scale) and were towed along the flume by a man who traveled the running
board. The opening of the large gates also created an artificial current which
assisted in keeping the logs moving. The tow was kept as near the gate as possible
and when the latter was opened the logs were rushed through to get the maximum
benefit from the accumulated head.
The flume was built at a cost of $3,000 per mile and it is estimated that with
minor repairs, it will last for fifteen years.
It will handle a 50-inch log, or two 30-inch logs side by side, except where the
latter pass through the gates. The logs run three to the thousand feet, log scale, and
the average daily capacity of the flume is 150,000 feet. Twenty-four million feet
have been handled in seven and one-half months.
FLUMES AND LOG SLUICES 413
Page 404. The Allen flume has a 34-inch V-shaped box, the angle at the vertex
being 63 degrees. The box is made of six boards 16 feet long, five of which are
2^ by II inches, and the sixth 2I by 12 inches. The cracks are battened by i- by
4-inch strips. A 6- by 6- by 6-inch backbone is fitted into the vertex. The box is
supported on trestle work, composed of 4- by 4-inch uprights, braced diagonally
with two 2- by 4-inch timbers, on top of which is a 4- by 4-inch cap. The trestles
range in height from 2 feet to 72 feet, the longest one being 775 feet. The flume
box is braced by 2- b}' 4-inch timbers placed against the sides of the box and
supported by other timbers of the same size. These timbers rest on the caps.
Water is supplied both from a reservoir at the head, and by numerous flume
feeders placed along the route which is about 15 miles in length.
The grade varies from 0.5 per cent to 12.5 per cent.
There are twenty rock cuts from 8 to 20 feet in depth and one tunnel 685 feet
long.
The flume has a capacity of 3500 logs daily, an average of 116,000 board feet.
The fluming season is about live and one-half months.
The cost of construction was approximately S4000 per mile, and at the end of
four years $500 per mile were expended in repairs on ten miles of flume.
Page 411. The American Gulch flume, approximately i mfle in length, in the
Deerlodge National Forest in Montana, has a 30-inch V-box which is chiefly sup-
ported on stringers laid on the ground. Very few trestles are employed. The
flume can handle mining stulls 15 inches in diameter and from 14 to 16 feet long.
Thirty-three thousand feet of lumber at $24 per thousand delivered, and 2755
pounds of nails were used in the construction of the box. Seven men built a mile
of flume in twenty days at the following reported cost per mile.
Supplies and labor.
Lumber:
Stumpage at $4.00
Logging, manufacture and hauling at $24
Nails:
2755 pounds at 5 cents, delivered
Labor:
I man at $4 per day $ 4 . 00
6 men at $3 per day 18.00 $22.00
20 days' labor at $22
Total per mile
Cost.
5132.00
792.00
138.00
440.00
>I502.00
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER XXIH
Robertson, J. E.: The Log Flume as a Means of Transporting Logs. The
Timberman, August, 1909, pp. 45-46.
Starbird, W. D.: Flumes. The Timberman, August, 191 2, pp. 42-44.
Steel, Francis R.: Lumber Flumes. Bulletin of the Harvard Forest Club,
Vol. I, 1911.
PART V
SUMMARY OF LOGGING METHODS IN
SPECIFIC REGIONS
CHAPTER XXIV
A. PORTABLE MILL OPERATIONS
Although the annual cut of a portable mill ranges only from
several hundred thousand to a few million feet, the industry is
of importance because of the large number of plants in operation
many of which handle timber in regions where large mills are
not feasible.
As a rule the portable operations in New England are con-
ducted as a side line by men engaged in the retail lumber busi-
ness; by contractors who can use their idle teams during the
winter season; by men who engage in lumbering as a specula-
tion when an opportunity presents itself; and by small wood-
working plants which are able to secure occasional stands of
timber suitable for their needs. Contract work both in logging
and manufacture is common and the product is usually sold to
railroad companies in the form of crossties and structural tim-
bers; to retail lumbermen in the form of lumber; to telephone
and telegraph companies in the form of poles; or to various
woodworking industries. The business is more active during
the fall and winter months when agricultural and other out-
door occupations are slack, because labor and teams are more
plentiful and a snow bottom reduces the logging expense,
especially for skidding.
In the National Forests of the West the tendency is for port-
able mill operators to conduct their operations continuously,
except for interruptions due to climatic conditions. These oper-
ations are conducted largely in the virgin forests often several
miles from a railroad and under conditions that are not favorable
for the development of large plants. The products of these
mills are used locally by settlers, by mines and by other indus-
trial enterprises.
Portable plants are common in the yellow pine region of the
417
4i8 LOGGING
South. They are sometimes located on small isolated tracts of
virgin timber but, as a rule, they follow large plants operating
on the lightly culled lands, and old-field stands. While a
portion of the product is marketed locally, large quantities
are sold through the larger operators, or through wholesalers
or commission men.
LOGGING METHODS — NEW ENGLAND ^
The operations in New England are conducted chiefly on
woodlots containing from fifty to several hundred thousand
feet. The operation may be confined to manufacturing the
stumpage on a contract basis for the owner, or a sawmill man
may buy the timber outright.
A common practice is for the sawmill man to make an esti-
mate of the property and offer a specified sum for the timber.
Few care to buy on the thousand-foot basis because the chance
of making a large profit is lessened. A common method of esti-
mating in Connecticut is for the prospective purchaser to exam-
ine the tract and make a rough ocular estimate. The purchaser
seldom contemplates paying stumpage on the cordwood, relying
on revenue from this source as an added profit. Some take
one-quarter acre sample plots and calculate the amount of
timber from the data thus secured. It was formerly easy to
purchase stumpage on the buyer's estimate because woodlot
owners seldom had any conception of the amount and value of
the timber, but in recent years many owners have hired men to
cruise and value their timber.
Well-located stumpage in the vicinity of New Haven, Con-
necticut, now brings approximately the following prices: Chest-
nut saw timber, $5 per thousand board feet; standard crossties,
ID cents; 30-foot poles, $1.25; red and black oak saw timber
from $6 to $8 per thousand; and white oak from $10 to $12
per thousand.
A common practice in logging virgin timber is to go over the
^ See "Second Growth Hardwoods in Connecticut," by Earle H. Frothingham.
Bulletin 96, U. S. Forest Service.
LOGGING METHODS 419
tract several times, removing certain products at a given cut-
ting. Chestnut telephone, telegraph and electric light poles
are taken out first. Piles are often cut from the tops of pole
timber, if there is a market for this class of material. If there
is large oak, ship timbers are generally removed next, being cut
in long logs which are later sawed into flitches at the mill. The
remaining timber is then converted into saw logs, the trees
being utihzed down to a 6-inch top diameter.
Crossties, which are cut in 8-foot lengths in the woods and
sawed into squared and pole ties, are made in large quantities
from short-bodied trees and large limbs.
Following the removal of all saw material comes the cutting
of cordwood. The residue, down to limbs one and one-half
inches in diameter, may then be cut up into material for char-
coal manufacture. Near favorable markets practically all of
the wood is utilized, except small branches.
The sawmill plant is set up in the immediate vicinity of the
operation where an open space can be secured for log and lumber
storage and where a water supply for the boiler is convenient.
Camps are seldom established.
The felling crews, which work several days in advance of skid-
ding, are composed chiefly of foreigners and from one to two
saw crews of three men each are required. A three-man crew
consists of a spotter and two fallers. The spotter selects the
trees to be felled and notches them, lays off lengths on the felled
timber, and aids the fallers in swamping. Saws and axes are
used for felling. The wages for a spotter are about $2 per day
and for fallers from $1.50 to $1.75. A three-man crew will fell
and buck from 4000 to 5000 feet daily. The contract price for
felling and log-making ranges from $1.25 to $2 per thousand
feet.
Pole cutting is done by contract at a cost of from i to i|
cents per running foot for felling and peeling. Peeling can be
done more readily in summer and pole-cutting contracts can be
let at that season for about 25 per cent less. Some buyers,
however, refuse to take summer-cut timber because of the
greater liability of insect attack.
420 LOGGING
Hewed ties are seldom made because of the waste in manufac-
ture. When cut, they are made by contract at from 9 to 10
cents each for chestnut and 12 cents for oak.
Cordwood is cut and piled by contract, the price ranging
from 90 cents to $1.25 for a standard cord, an average being
about $1.
The logs are snaked on steep slopes, and then hauled on a
log-boat, or on a "scoot" to the mill. These are used on short
hauls even when there is no snow on the ground. A log-boat is
about 6 feet long, 3 feet wide, and has a flat bottom made
of heavy planks which are upturned in front. A bunk is placed
about 4 feet from the front end and on this the fore end of
the log is loaded and bound with chains, while the rear end drags
on the ground. The horses are hitched to a chain which passes
through the upturned nose and is attached to the bunk. A
tongue is not used. The scoot is a sled having two runners
about 12 feet long, with a 4-foot gauge, a forward and rear
bunk, and a standard length tongue. It is especially service-
able for short logs which are loaded on the sled. Wagons are
not used to transport logs to the mill unless the haul is greater
than f mile.
The usual log requirements of a portable mill are from 5000 to
7000 feet, log scale, daily, and on short hauls two teams can bring
in this amount. The average days' work on an |-mile haul is
about 3500 feet per team.
The contract skidding prices are about $1.50 per thousand for
a maximum haul of |-mile, and $2 for a |-mile haul for saw logs;
crossties 5 cents each, and posts 25 cents each for the shorter
haul. The average cost of logs delivered at the mill, exclusive
of the stumpage value, ranges from $2.75 to $4 per thousand
board feet.
Skidding and hauling charges are seldom separated for poles.
On a 3-mile haul, with wages and team hire at $5 per day, the
cost of skidding and hauling 25- and 30-foot poles is 28 cents each;
35-foot poles 42 cents each; and 40 or 45-foot poles 83 cents
each.
Cordwood can be hauled 3 miles for about $1.75 per cord.
LOGGING METHODS
COLORADO
421
The portable mill operations in this state are taken as a
type of small operations in the National Forests. The mills
are often several miles from a small town at rather high eleva-
tions in the forests where the topography is rugged and the snow
is deep during the winter season.
The stand is largely of small-sized timber, with logs averaging
from 10 to 12 inches in diameter at the small end, and from
three to four and one-half 16-foot logs per tree, when cut to a top
diameter of 6 inches.
The closeness of utilization depends largely on the local mar-
kets, and the purpose for which the timber is used. On some
sales where waney-edge boards can be used for packing cases
and other rough work, very little waste occurs, while on other
sales where the demand is for lumber only, the mill waste is
heavy.
The logging season depends on the climatic conditions and the
character of bottom. Felling and skidding usually begin some-
time between the middle of June and the first of August and
continue until the first or the middle of January when snow
becomes too deep for profitable work. Hauling on some opera-
tions begins at the time of felling, the logs being handled on
wagons, carts or go-devils up to the time snow falls, and after
that sleds are used until the end of March or the middle of
April. On other operations logs are hauled only in winter.
Camps, which cost from $300 to $400 on operations of average
size, are of log or board construction and comprise a cook shanty,
a bunk house, a stable and possibly a few other buildings. Labor
is chiefly local.
Felling and Log-making. — The methods employed are similar
to those of other regions, the ax being used to notch the timber
and the saw for felling. The work is done both by day labor
and by contract.
The wage for sawyers is about $2.75 per day, while the contract
prices range from $1.25 to $2 per thousand feet, depending on
the size and character of the timber and the amount of swamping
422 LOGGING
required of the sawyers and the depth of snow. The actual cost
of sawing Engehnann spruce is a httle lower than for lodgepole
pine because it cuts more readily; but no difference is usually
made in the contract price. On one sale where the sawyers cut
off" the Kmbs, lopped the tops, and scattered the brush the con-
tract was $1.25 per thousand for timber running about fifteen and
one-half logs. Efficient crews of two men cut about 5000 feet
daily, while others cut as low as 4000 feet.
On another sale where the fallers worked singly at felling and
bucking, the contract price was $1.75 per thousand including
the swamping work. Each man averaged from 2000 to 2500
feet daily. Another logger in the same region paid $2 per
thousand for the same work.
Swamping is usually done by a member of the skidding crew,
one man being assigned to each team. Since the Forest Service
requires that the brush shall be scattered or piled the swamping
expense is increased. The cost of brush disposal on small opera-
tions depends largely on the species, the depth of snow, the
amount of dead material and young growth, the steepness of the
slopes and the character of the bottom. Timber with many
limbs such as Engelmann spruce and lodgepole pine necessitate
more cutting and handling than most other species, hence brush
disposal is more expensive. Snow from 18 to 24 inches deep
makes brush disposal disagreeable, and seriously hampers the
work. WTiere dead material is found among }'Oung growth
the piles must be made where reproduction will not be injured
during brush burning and where do\\'n timber will not be ignited.
Men are hampered in getting around on steep slopes and rough
ground and hence brush disposal is more costly. As a rule,
brush piling and scattering on small operations, if properly done,
each cost from 30 to 50 cents per thousand feet. Sawyers
sometimes do the swamping and piling during the summer and
fall for an advance of from 25 to 30 cents per thousand.
Skidding. — The movement of the logs from the stump to the
mill is performed either in one or two operations. On good
bottom and short hauls the logs are either skidded directly to the
mil] or else hauled on sleds or carts over inexpensive roads.
LOGGING METHODS 423
About 500 board feet constitutes a load under the latter con-
dition. The choice of methods depends on the season of the
year. In rough sections and for distances greater than j-mile
the logs are usually yarded to skidways and then hauled on
wagons or sleds to the mill. On rough and steep places a single
horse is used for skidding, while on favorable bottoms two horses
are employed.
On one operation yarding with one horse to a skidway not
more than 200 feet distant costs about 75 cents per thousand
with an additional sled haul charge of $1.49 per thousand for
distances up to f -mile. On another operation where single teams
were used with carts in summer and sleds in winter, the cost of
haul was $3 per thousand for a maximum distance of |-mile
and an average haul of ^-mile. On an operation which yarded
its logs to skidways and hauled on sleds for an average distance
of j-mile, the cost of logging was as follows:
Felling and bucking .
Brush disposal
Swamping
Skidding
Logging roads
Hauling
Camp depreciation. .
Total
Cost per 1000
board feet.
hM
The men were boarded in a camp run by the company. The
rate was 75 cents per day with free bunk house privileges, the
laborers furnishing their own bedding.
On another operation where the skidding distance averaged
150 feet and the average haul was three-eighths of a mile, the
contract price delivered at the mill was $5 per thousand, as
follows:
Felling, bucking, swamping and brush disposal.
Yarding and hauling
Total
Cost per locxD
board feet.
52.00
3.00
424 LOGGING
B. NORTHEAST
Period of Logging. — Operations are usually confined to a
period of from twenty-six to thirty-two weeks, beginning in the
late summer and closing during the early spring. Where rail-
road transport is used summer logging is practiced.
Labor. — The labor is composed chiefly of French Canadians
and Europeans. The men are generally employed by the month
and are furnished board and lodging. The average camp crew
consists of about sixty men.
Camps. — The buildings usually are log structures which house
from fifty to sixty men, and from twenty-five to forty horses.
Camps are used for two or three seasons and then abandoned or
else used as storehouses. Board camps are used chiefly on rail-
road operations. Supplies are hauled in on sleds or wagons
where rail transport is not available. Workmen do not bring
their families into camp.
Topography and Bottom. — - The topography of the region
ranges from rolling to rough, and the bottom is often covered with
a heavy growth of underbrush. The steep slopes are usually
rocky. The rolling land provides a good bottom for animals.
Swamps are common in the region and usually have to be logged
during the winter season.
Felling and Log-making. — The practice is to fell the timber
with the saw and ax. The boles are cut into standard lengths for
saw logs, and into long logs when the timber is to be manufac-
tured into pulpwood, although occasionally pulpwood timber is
cut into 4-foot lengths for ease in handling. The fallers work in
crews of two or three men and cut and make into logs from
5000 to 8000 feet of timber, daily. Spruce pulpwood is some-
times peeled in the forest.
Skidding. — Animal logging predominates in the region, al-
though a few cableway skidders have been used in Xew England
on difficult logging chances. Snaking machines have been
employed to a very limited extent in the mountains of northern
New York. Yarding, on operations where a sled haul is used,
begins early in September and continues until the snow gets too
LOGGING METHODS 425
deep for profitable felling, which is usually during the latter part
of December. Logs are decked on skidways along two-sled roads
and are either dragged to the yard by a single animal or a team,
or else hauled on a yarding sled. A skidding and a felling crew
of seven men can cut and skid from 5000 to 7000 feet daily on
a f-mile haul when a team and yarding sled are employed for
moving the timber.
Chutes and log slides are occasionally employed on some opera-
tions to bring logs down steep slopes.
Transportation. — Logs are usually transported from the skid-
ways to a landing on a stream on a two-sled drawn by two or
four horses, or on a yarding sled when the haul does not exceed
|-mile. Steam log haulers are frequently substituted for animal
draft on long hauls. The logs are floated out of the small streams
during the early spring freshets and are driven down the large
streams during the summer.
Railroad operations are not common, but where rail transport
is used logs are yarded and hauled on sleds to the railroad during
the winter months, and yarded directly to the railroad during
the summer.
Flumes have been used in a few instances for bringing pulp-
wood from the forest to a stream down which it is driven.
The common form of transporting logs to the mill is by float-
ing. Rafting is practiced only after the logs are sorted on the
lower stretches of the stream. Drives are conducted largely by
incorporated companies.
COST OF OPERATION
General camp expense.
Toting supplies
Road making
Yarding
Hauling
Camp construction. . . .
Water transport
Total
Cost per 1000 bcjard feet.
$
.90 to $
.90
.15 to
•I.-)
.30 to
.40
2
.00 to 2
50
I
.00 to I
50
.06 to
10
I
00 to 2
00
S5
41 to $7
55
426 LOGGING
C, LAKE STATES — W^HITE PINE
Period of Logging. — Railroad operations are conducted
throughout the year unless suspended on account of snow. When
logs are transported on sleds to streams dowTi which they are
driven, the season is from thirty to thirty-six weeks long, be-
ginning in the late summer and ending with the termination of
hauling.
Labor. — The laborers are chiefly Swedes, Norwegians, Finns^
Austrians and Poles. Foremen are often native-born Americans.
The wage basis of payment is common.
Camps. — On railroad operations camps are often board
structures although log buildings are also used. The latter
are employed almost exclusively on operations where the logs are
hauled on sleds and floated down streams. Workmen are
boarded and housed by the operator.
Topography and Bottom. — The topography varies through-
out the region. In some sections the land is flat, more often it
is rolling and "pot holes," which present difhcult logging prob-
lems, are common. The brush is often dense in the forest
where the pine is mixed with hardwoods, while in pure stands of
pine the undergrowth is usually scanty.
Felling and Log-making. — This work is performed by a crew
of two or three men who operate under the direction of a saw
boss. Low stumps are cut and the bole is taken to a top diam-
eter of about 4 inches. Logs are generally cut into standard
lengths. The daily output of a crew of two men is from 6000
to 10,000 feet, log scale, depending on the size of the timber.
Skidding. — Animal logging is predominant. Several meth-
ods are used for bringing logs to the skidway which is either
along a railroad or a sled road. For small logs and for distances
of from 300 to 400 feet snaking is common while for large logs
and rough bottom go-devils are employed. Logs are snaked
for 500 or 600 feet on snow bottom. High- wheeled carts are used
by some operators for logging to a railroad in summer, when
hauling for distances from j- to §-mile. In winter logging,
swamps are crossed and often hauls of |-mile are made by
LOGGING METHODS 427
means of a jumbo dray, the logs being snaked out to the roads
and then hauled directly to the skid way along the railroad.
Steel-spar cableway skidders (p. 197) are now used on some
hardwood and hemlock operations.
Transportation. — Railroads are the chief form of transport.
During the spring, summer and fall the logs required daily are
yarded directly to the railroad and loaded on cars. The winter
supply of logs is either decked along the railroad or else yarded
at more remote spots and then hauled to the railroad on two-
sleds. There are only minor interruptions of railroad traffic
due to snowfall. The use of two-sleds for hauling logs to a stream
down which they are floated is less common than formerly,
because of the high value of the white pine stumpage and the
large amounts of heavy hardwoods which are now being logged.
Steam log haulers (p. 172) are common in the Lake States on
sled hauls, sometimes bringing the logs directly to the mill.
Cost of Logging. — The following costs were those incurred on
a white pine operation during 1909. The railroad haul was
14 miles, 7 on a logging road and 7 on a trunk line. The logs
were snaked to the railroad, loaded with a crosshaul, and hauled
at once to the mill. The daily output of the camp was from
200,000 to 210,000 feet, log scale.
Felling
Skidding and swamping.
Loading
Railroad construction. .
Railroad operation
Total
Cost per 1000 board
feet.
$ .38 to $ .45
1 . 00 to 1 . 50
. 20 to .25
.60 to .75
■ 45 to .50
L'.63 S3. 45
D. SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE
Period of Logging. — The year round.
Labor. — White and colored. The former provide the more
skilled labor and the latter the unskilled, although colored
laborers occasionally occupy positions of responsibility. On
428 LOGGING
some operations in the northern part of the region, whites are
employed exclusively.
Camps. — They are composed chiefly of portable houses in
which the loggers and their families reside. A general store,
church and school house are usually provided. Car camps
may be used when families are not furnished accommoda-
tions.
Topography and Bottom. — In the southern part of the region
the country is flat or rolling, while on the northern edge it is
usually broken. The bottom in the longleaf forests is generally
free from brush, while in the loblolly and shortleaf forests there
is often a heavy undergrowth.
Felling and Log-making. — This is customarily done by a
two-man crew which uses a saw and an ax. The daily output is
from 7500 to 15,000 feet, depending on the size of the timber
and the stand per acre. Contract work prevails. Where ani-
mal skidding is used logs are cut in standard lengths, while
where power skidding is employed they are cut in lengths rang-
ing from 24 feet up to the entire merchantable bole. Sometimes
only the tops are cut from the trees and the bole is brought to
the mill and there cut into logs.
Skidding. — Animal logging predominates throughout the
region, although the snaking system (p. 204) is common in the
flat pineries, and occasionally a cableway skidder (p. 196) is
used. So far as is known the slack-rope system is not employed.
The favorite method of animal logging is to "snake" the timber
for short distances, and to move distant logs with bummers,
high carts or wagons. When standard length logs are handled
bummers are a favorite vehicle for the shorter distances, and
4-, 6-, or 8-wheeled wagons for long distances. High wheeled
carts are preferred for long logs, and are often employed for short
logs on hauls of 800 feet or less.
Transport. — The almost universal form of long-distance trans-
port of logs from the forest to the mill is by railroad, because of
the continuous operation of the plant, lack of suitable streams
for driving and the weight of the timber. Where streams are
available, floating is practiced to a very limited extent by some
LOGGING METHODS
429
of the smaller operators; however, the loss from sunken timber
is from 25 to 33 per cent.
Cost of Logging. — The following table shows the cost of animal
logging, during 191 1, on a fiat bottom where the stand averaged
from 10,000 to 12,000 feet per acre. The railroad haul for two-
thirds of the output did not exceed 6 miles, and for the re-
mainder was about 20 miles.
Logging:
Cutting
Swamping
Hauling
Feed
Spur construction
Fuel
Loading on cars
Repairs (locomotives and cars) .
Main-line expense
General expense
Manufacture:
Sawmill
Dry houses and yards
Log pond
Sales expense
Planing mill
Trucking and loading
Discount
Sundries
Total cost, exclusive of stumpage.
Cost per 1000 board
feet.
$0,445
.062
■590
.205
.605
■055
■346
■^33
.136
•359
$2,936
$1-395
1. 122
.074
.485
•833
.690
.172
2.139
$6,910
The average sale value of the product f.o.b. mill was Si 5.30.
On another operation where the stand averaged 5100 feet per
acre, the topography was rolling, the main-line railroad haul was
10 miles and the logs were moved on wagons, the cost for the
year 1909 was as follows:
Loggmg:
Cutting and hauling
Loading on cars
Railroad construction and operation . .
Manufacture:
Sawmill
Drying, stacking and hauling
Depreciation on stock (6 per cent) . . . .
Planing and shipping
Sundry expenses, insurance, etc
Total cost, exclusive of stumpage.
Cost per 1000 board
feet.
$1,892
.189
1. 131
$3,212
I 564
1.025
.566
1. 164
I .067
5386
508
The average sale value f.o.b. mill was $13.03.
43° LOGGING
E. CYPRESS
Period of Logging. — The year round.
Labor. — The unskilled labor is composed of negroes, Creoles
and Mexicans, and the skilled labor of whites. Contract work
prevails.
Camps. — Floating camps built on scows are used on pullboat
operations, and permanent board camps on railroad operations.
Character of Bottom. — The bottom on many of the swamps is
covered with water during a portion of the year, although there
are many "islands" and other extensive areas which are seldom,
if ever, submerged, where railroad camps may be located. The
timber grows both on the wet ground and on the higher eleva-
tions. The bottom is too soft for animal logging.
Felling and Log-making. — The timber, which is girdled or
deadened some weeks or months in advance of felling and log-
making, is felled and made into logs with the ax and saw. Work-
men are paid by the log, tree or thousand feet cut. A crew of
two men will fell and make into logs from 7500 to 10,000 feet
of timber, daily. Timber is cut to a minimum diameter of 8
inches in the top.
Skidding. — Three methods are employed.
(i) Hand Logging. — During low water the timber is deadened
and later felled. Creeks or lanes from 50 to 150 feet wide are
cut through the forest with reference to the current during flood
time. When the swamp is covered with from 5 to 6 feet of
water the logs are ''poled" out to the creeks do^\^l which they
are floated to a rafting station, where they are rafted and towed
to the mill.
(2) Pullboat Logging. — A slack-rope skidding device (page
208) is mounted on a scow and moored in a canal, bayou or lake
to which logs are dragged for distances of from 3500 to 5000 feet.
They are then rafted and towed to the mill. The daily output
is from fifty to seventy-five logs.
(3) Cableway Skidding and Rail Transport. — A cableway
skidder (p. 196) is placed alongside a spur or main-line track and
logs are yarded to the railroad from distances of from 600 to
LOGGING METHODS
431
800 feet. They are then loaded on cars and transported to the
mill. The daily output is from 30,000 to 40,000 feet per skidder.
Transport. — Floating and railroading are the two methods
employed.
(i) Floating. — The logs are made into cigar-shaped units
about 125 feet long and several of them are joined together into
a raft and towed to a mill.
(2) Railroad. — Main lines are usually built on piling. Spur
roads, which are located approximately |-mile apart are "dun-
nage" roads (p. 283). Light-weight engines and skeleton cars
are employed. Logs are loaded on cars by a special device on
the skidder.
COST OF OPERATION
Pullboat operation:
Deadening
Felling and log-making
Sniping
Road cutting
PuUboating
Rafting
Superintendence
Towing
General expense
Total cost
Railroad operation:
Deadening
Felling and log-making ,
Skidding and loading
Spur construction
Main-line construction
Operating charge (railroad)
Skidder repairs
General expense and superintendence
Total
Cost per 1000 board
feet.
So. 08 to $0.12
•50
to .50
.16 to .16
1.25
to 2 . 50
1-25
to 1.60
.06 to .06
. 10
to . 12
■ 50
to I . GO
• 25
to .25
$4-15
$6.31
$0.11
to So . I I
•50
to .50
1 .00
to 1.20
•50
to .60
.20
to .30
•50
to .60
•13
to .18
•SO
to .70
;-44
..19
F. NORTHWEST
Period of Logging. — The year round.
Labor. — Logging is highly speciaHzed and requires a large
number of skilled men among whom are found natives, Swedes
and Norwegians. Unskilled labor is foreign and consists of the
432 LOGGING
two nationalities mentioned and, in addition, men from southern
Europe.
Camps. — Either car camps, board camps or portable houses
are used to shelter the men. Families seldom reside in camp.
Laborers are housed and boarded by the logger.
Topography and Bottom. — The region ranges from rolling to
rugged and in many sections difficult logging problems are
encountered. Underbrush is heavy in the coast forests where
rainfall is abundant.
Felling and Log-making. — Felling and log-making are done by
separate crews. Fallers who work in crews of two may or may
not do the notching. Two log buckers who work alone are
required for each crew of fallers. Logs are cut in even lengths
of 24 feet or more.
Yarding. — Power logging is now almost universal, the slack-
rope system (p. 208) being the predominant form. A few
cableway skidders (p. 196) are in operation and are gaining in
popularity for handling small and medium-sized timber.
Animal logging is found only on small operations where the
"chance" is favorable and the output limited.
Transport, (i) Road Engine. — A road engine sometimes
takes logs from the yarding engine to a stream or railroad
(p. 218). This practice is less common than formerly.
(2) Locomotive. — A geared locomotive may be employed to
drag the logs over the crossties to a landing along the railroad
(p. 220).
(3) Railroad. — The most desirable practice is to place the
yarding engines along the logging railroad. Logs are loaded
on flat or skeleton cars or log trucks and hauled to the mill, to
a driveable stream, or to tide-water. When yarding engines
are employed cars are loaded with jacks or with a gin-pole, and
when the cableway skidder is used the logs are loaded with a
special device provided for that purpose. Cars are unloaded
by hand methods, log dumps, or other special unloading
devices.
(4) Rafting. — Logs are usually rafted and are seldom floated
singly to the mill.
LOGGING METHODS
433
(5) Flumes. — These are occasionally employed for bringing
logs from the forest to the railroad or some stream.
(6) Chutes. — Chutes and slides are in frequent use in
some sections for bringing logs down steep slopes and for
handling logs on bottom that cuts up badly in dry weather.
Three-pole and five-pole chutes are in most common use
(P- ^ii)-
(7) Aerial Tramways. — These are employed to bring logs
from high elevations to lower ones, especially on very rough
ground.
Cost of Logging. — • The average daily output and the cost
per thousand feet for yarders operating 900 feet of line are
given below.^ The costs refer only to the yarding work and
are based on a labor expense of $26 per day and a per diem
allowance of $10 for upkeep of machinery, blocks, rigging,
lines and other equipment.
Average log
Amount yarded
Cost per 1000 board
content.
daily.
feet for yarding.
Board feet.
Board feet.
2000
90,000
$0.40
1750
78,750
■45
1500
67,500
•53
1250
62,500
•59
1000
SS >ooo
•65
■ 750
41,250
.87
500
32,500
1 . 12
250
22,500
1 .60
A road engine operating for 3000 feet can handle the output
of two yarding engines. The crew consists of five men, namely,
one engineer, one fireman, one wood-buck, one grab-setter and
one chaser. When a road engine handles the output of two
yarding crews the cost per thousand feet is approximately as
follows, allowing $32.50 per day for labor, deterioration of ma-
chinery and road upkeep.
^ See the .\merican Lumberman, Chicago, Illinois, September 24, 19 10,
p. 46.
434
LOGGING
Average log
Cost per 1000 board
content.
feet for hauling.
Board feet.
2000
$0.18
1750
.21
1500
•25
1250
.26
1000
•30
750
.40
500
•5°
250
•70
If only one machine is yarding to the road engine the cost will
be approximately 85 per cent higher.
The total cost of logging on an average Douglas fir operation
is approximately as follows:
Felling and bucking
Yarding and loading
Railroad transportation (logging road)
Railroad transportation (trunk line^
Booming
Scaling
Sales expense for logs
Repairs, renewals, maintenance, insurance... .
Railroad construction
Depreciation
Supervision, city office expense, miscellaneous
Total
Cost per 1000
feet.
1 .00
•35
I SO
•25
•OS
•OS
•75
•50
.20
S5.45
G. MOUXTAE^ LOGGING IN WEST VIRGINIA
Period of Logging. — The year round.
Labor. — The foremen are usually Americans, and the remaining
laborers are chiefly foreigners, such as Italians, Austrians, Poles
and Hungarians with a small percentage of other nationahties.
Camps. — The camps are chiefly board structures built along
the logging railroad. They accommodate from fifty to seventy-
five men and from twenty-five to thirty-five horses. Board and
lodging are provided by the operator. Families seldom reside
in camp.
1 See Cost of Mountain Logging in West Virginia, by Henry H. Farquhar.
Forestry Quarterly, Vol, VII, pp. 255-269.
LOGGING METHODS 435
Topography and Bottom. — The region in which extensive
operations are now conducted is rugged with narrow valleys
and steep slopes, covered in many places with massive boulders
that are a hinderance to logging. Mountain laurel is abundant
throughout the forest and necessitates heavy swamping.
Felling and Log-making. — On operations where hemlock bark
and logs are utilized the bark peelers fell, bark and cut the
boles into logs during the months of May to August, inclusive.
During the remainder of the year the felling crews, consisting
of a chopper and two sawyers, go through the forest felling and
cutting into logs the remaining spruce and hemlock trees. The
hardwoods are cut after the softwoods to avoid the loss through
breakage that would occur if all of the timber were felled at one
time. Trees are cut to a stump diameter of 10 inches and the
boles to a top diameter of 8 inches for saw logs, and 4 inches
for pulpwood. A crew of two men will fell and make into logs
from 15,000 to 20,000 feet of spruce and hemlock, daily. Two
knot cutters are often members of the felling crew. Their duty
is to snipe the ends of the logs and to remove the limbs from
them.
Skidding. — Skidding is done largely with animals. Roads
or trails are cut from the valleys up to the tops of the ridges and
the logs are dragged down in tows either over skipper roads or
pole slides. A team on a skipper road will handle from 5000 to
6000 feet daily on a haul of j-mile. Slides (p. 230) are common
in some sections and are built from a few hundred feet to a mile
or more in length.
The cableway system of power logging is in occasional use,
and on some operations single-line snaking machines are em-
ployed for dragging logs for distances as great as 2500 feet.
Transportation. — On many operations the logs are hauled to
the mill on narrow- or standard-gauge railroads. The narrow-
gauge roads are frequently of the stringer t\^e. The railroad is
usually built up the main "draws" or valleys. Spurs are sel-
dom constructed because of the heavy expense.
Inclines are common and occasionally aerial trams are em-
ployed.
436
LOGGING
Logs are loaded both by hand and with power loaders of sev-
eral t}-pes.
Water transport is used in regions where suitable streams
are available. The logs are hauled to the stream and placed in
the channel awaiting a freshet to carry them dowTi stream.
Cost of Logging. — The cost of contract logging on an opera-
tion in the mountainous parts of West Virginia with a twenty-
mile railroad haul is as follows:
Felling
Road-making and swairping
Skidding
Loading
Office expense
General expense
Railroad construction
Total
Cost per looo
board feet.
$O.Q5
87
I
76
35
08
24
86
The total cost of lumber f.o.b. car at the mill for the year
IQ09 was as follows:
Logging, including stumpage
Milling '.
Log train service
Office expense
General expense, taxes, legal fees, etc,
Total
Cost per 1000
feet.
88. 46
I .64
1.67
•15
•03
$11.95
H. ALASKLA.
Period of Logging. — Chiefly during the warmer months.
Logging Methods. — Until recently hand logging has been the
common method along the shores, but this is now being replaced
by the slack-rope system of power logging. The donkeys are
* Hoffman. Bruce E.: Sitka Spruce of Alaska. Proceedings of the Society of
American Foresters, Vol. VII, No. 2, pp. 226-238.
LOGGING METHODS
437
mounted on scows which are towed to the point where logging
is to be carried on. Loggers seldom operate more than 900 feet
from shore, although in one case a road engine and a donkey
were employed and the logs brought from a maximum distance
of 2500 feet. Timber is becoming scarce that can be reached
by present methods and improved machinery will soon be
required.
Cost of Operation. — The average cost of operating with
power logging on the Tongass National Forest is about as
follows :
Felling
Lopping tops
Yarding to booming place
Booming
Towing
Boom cost (bucking and pl^acing on mill deck)
Sawing
Edging
Trimming
Yard cost
Planer, cost on finished material
Loading and selling
Fuel and oil
Upkeep
Manufacturing license
Stumpage
Total cost
Cost per
1000 board
feet.
$0.75
.02
2.00
■25
$3 -021
■75
. 20
1.875
■375
•75
1 .00
1-50
1 .00
•50
•50
.10
1 .00
955
512.57
1 Logs are usually sold in the market at about $s per thousand feet, hence on most operations
the cost of logs to the raillman is Si. 98 additional.
The average percentage of each grade sawed from Sitka spruce
is as follows:
Per cent.
Clear
15
20
15
20
20
5
No. I common
No. 2 common
Box
Dimension
Cull
438 LOGGING
The average retail prices are as follows:
Value per looo
board feet.
Rough lumber, mill run
§-sized, mill run
S15.00
16.00
17-50
20.00
30.00
Ship-lap, mill run
Select (finish)
Finish, clear
PART VI
MINOR INDUSTRIES
\
CHAPTER XXV
TURPENTINE ORCHARDING
The production of naval stores was an important industry
in some of the South Atlantic States, especially in the Carolinas
where the industry flourished for many years, but it has been
on the decline since 1880, the year of maximum production.
Florida is now the center of the industry, producing more
than one-half of all the turpentine and rosin output of this
country. Other States in which large quantities are produced
are Texas, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia and South
Carolina.
The production in 191 1 was 638,000 casks of turpentine and
3,916,000 barrels^ of rosin.- The greater part of these products
find their market in Europe.
Species Worked. — All coniferous trees contain resinous
materials in their wood, but resin ducts are best developed in the
hard pines of the South which furnish the raw material from which
naval stores are secured.
The product obtained by "bleeding" a pine tree is known as
gum, crude turpentine or resin. From this, turpentine, rosin
and pitch are secured by distillation. Pitch pine {Pinus rigida)
3delds limited quantities of crude turpentine. It was worked
successfully in the East during the Revolutionary war but the
industry has ceased to exist because of the scarcity of timber
and the limited yield per tree.
Shortleaf pine {P. echinata) does not yield resin readily and
the face of the tree dries rapidly. Although the yield per tree
is limited, the so-called ''Rosemary" pine, a form of shortleaf,
is bled when found in the vicinity of other species that are being
worked. ,
^ 280 pounds each.
2 Naval Stores Review, Savannah, Georgia, June 27, 191 2, p. 40.
441
442 LOGGING
Loblolly pine (P. tcBda) contains a large amount of resinous
material in its sapwood similar in composition to that found in
longleaf. The crude turpentine from this species is more fluid
in character, dries faster on the face of the cut, and the yield per
tree is limited so that this species is not regarded with favor in
longleaf regions. However, it has been and still is extensively
worked in the Carolinas.
Cuban pine iP. heterophylla) which occurs largely in the State
of Florida is worked with the longleaf. It bleeds for a longer
period than other species and produces only a small amount of
scrape.
Longleaf pine {P. palustris) is the tree most productive of crude
turpentine and furnishes the raw material from which the bulk
of the world supph' of turpentine and rosin are produced.
Attitude of Lumbermen toward Turpentine Orcharding. — All
owners of stumpage are not agreed as to whether it is profitable
to bleed pine timber for naval stores because of the increased fire
risk, Hability to wind damage especially on boxed timber, the
depreciated value of the butt log which is the best portion of
the tree,^ the increased weight of bled timber which averages
about 200 pounds per thousand feet heavier than unbled timber
and the loss of killed timber which ranges from i per cent on
cupped trees to 5 per cent on boxed timber.
Stumpage from bled timber is held at from 50 to 65 per
cent less than that of unbled. Where timber is now bled,
logging follows soon after the cessation of orcharding. Turpen-
tining is not as prevalent among operators on the west side of
the ^Mississippi River as on the east side, although the practice
appears to be growing as the methods of orcharding are
improved.
Large stumpage owners and lumber operators as a rule prefer
to run their own turpentine operations rather than to lease the
rights to others. Where leases are made, safeguards are pro-
vided in the contract which strictly define the rights and
responsibilities of the lessee. The lease may be made on the
^ Some operators claim that the loss in quality and quantity is fully 20 per
cent.
TURPENTINE ORCHARDING 443
basis of the crop or the acre, and usually runs for a three- or
four-year period.
The average lease price per acre is from $2.50 to $4.50 for a
four-year period, while the rental per crop for the same time
ranges from $700 to Siooo. A stipulation is frequently placed
in the contract requiring the turpentine operator to pay for all
timber killed during his lease. The price for this is based on
the stumpage value of the timber and is estimated annually at
the close of the season.
METHODS OF OPERATION
For many years crude turpentine was harvested in a primitive
and wasteful manner by means of the box method, but within
the last ten years the box is rapidly being replaced by cups or
other receptacles which are less injurious to the tree, and which
yield a higher percentage of turpentine and a better grade of
rosin.
A. THE WORKING UNIT
A pine forest, called a turpentine orchard, is divided up into
working units, called crops. These are composed of 10,500
boxes or cups which cover an area of from 200 to 250 acres in
the virgin longleaf forests, and an area of from 500 to 1600 acres
in the Carolina fields which are largely exhausted. Crops are
further divided into five "drifts," comprising 2100 boxes each.
On large operations from ten to fifteen crops are in charge of a
woodsman or woodsrider who is responsible to a superintendent
in charge of the entire operation. The boundaries of crops and
drifts are usually marked by blazes to guide the laborers.
The development of a new crop begins early in the fall, by
firing the forest and burning oft* the grass, fallen needles and other
refuse on the forest floor, which would prove a menace to the
timber after the trees have been prepared for bleeding.
Following the burning of the litter comes the preparation of
the receptacle for catching the gum as it comes from the tree.
This is done during the period between October and March,
when labor is abundant and is not required on other parts of the
operation.
444 LOGGING
B. THE SIZE OF TREE AXD THE NUMBER OF RECEPTACLES
Trees as small as 6 inches in diameter are often bled, although
it is seldom profitable to work trees under 1 2 inches.
The number of boxes or cups placed on a tree is governed
chiefly by its size; small trees having one receptacle, medium-
sized trees, from 18 to 24 inches in diameter, two, and those of
greater diameter from two to four. During the last year the
crop is worked some operators "back box" the timber, that is,
they place additional cups on the trees.
It is essential that a strip of cambium from 3 to 6 inches wide
be left between each scar in order that the tree will not be
girdled, and die during the first season.
WTien the turpentine rights only are leased, the timber often
is bled more heavily than where the work is done by the o\\'ner
of the timber.
C. THE BOX SYSTEM
Cutting the Boxes. — The box consists of a wedge-shaped
incision cut into the base of the tree at a height of from 8 to 12
inches above the surface of the ground.
The size of the box depends on the diameter of the tree, but
usually the opening is from 6 to 7 inches in height, from 9 to 14
inches wide and the base slopes do^^mward at an angle of 35
degrees for a distance of 7 inches. The capacity of these boxes
varies from i to 3 quarts.
Boxing is done with a long-bitted, straight-handled ax of
special pattern. The negro laborers who work by contract are
paid from i^ to 2 cents per box. On large operations the men
work in crews of from forty to fifty in charge of a foreman, who
inspects and tallies the boxes cut by each man. A water boy is
a necessary member of the crew and is usually paid by the
laborers, each one of whom contributes two boxes per day toward
the pa^nnent of his wage.
A good box cutter will average from 80 to 150 boxes per day.
Some are able to cut 200 per day, but not all of the boxes will
be well made.
ffi
TURPENTINE ORCHARDING
445
Cornering. — Boxing is followed by cornering, performed by
two workers, one right-handed, the other left-handed. An
ordinary ax is used for this purpose. From the peak of the box
a slanting cut one inch deep is made upward until its outer edge
is directly above the outer edge of the box. A side blow then
splits out the wood between the cut and the outer edge of the tree.
The object of cornering is to provide a suitable face for the com-
mencement of the subsequent scarification of the tree.
Two men can cut 2000 faces per day. The contract price
ranges between $1.25 and $1.50 per thousand faces.
Fig. 1 29. — A Turpentine Box for the collection of Crude Turpentine.
Chipping. — In tapping a tree very little resin is actually
secured from the resin ducts already in the wood. The main
flow is from secondary ducts which arise as a consequence of
the injury due to chipping.^ Resin begins to flow about February
15 or March i and chipping or scarification then begins. This
consists in laying bare the surface of the sapwood directly above
^ See The Origin and Development of Resin Canals in the Coniferas with
Special Reference to the Development of Tyloses and their co-relation with the
Thj'losal Strands of the Pteridophytes, by Simon Kirsch. Proc. Royal Society
of Canada, 191 1. Also Relation of Light Chipping to the Commercial Yield of
Naval Stores, by Charles H. Herty. Bulletin No. 90, U. S. Forest Service,
Washington, 191 1.
446 LOGGING
the box, the incision being made about f-inch deep and from
I to 2 inches wide. The tool used for this purpose is called a
hack and consists of a blade of high-grade steel about 3 inches
wide bent into a U-shape. The cutting blade is fastened by a
shank and band to a 2-inch handle, from 18 to 24 inches long,
on the end of which is attached a 6-pound iron weight to give
force to the stroke. A patent hack recently placed on the
market can be adjusted to cut any thickness of chip desired,
and in addition makes a square cut instead of a concave one.
The chipper or renter, as he is called, stands squarely in front
of the box and by a right-hand and left-hand stroke removes
the chip from the face of the tree. The freshly cut surfaces,
called streaks, meet just above the center of the box, forming the
peak, and extend upward at an angle of about 40 degrees to a
line perpendicular to the outer edge of the box. The cut must
not penetrate the heartwood, or else the face becomes "dry"
and resin ceases to run. The flow from the fresh incisions runs
over the scaritied face into the box below. It is most vigorous
on the first day after chipping and gradually diminishes until
the seventh day, when it practically ceases. It is necessary,
therefore, to "chip" the trees weekly, approximately thirty- two
streaks being made during the first season. Each successive
streak increases the distance to the box, and at the end of
the first season the scarified face has extended from 18 to 20
inches up the tree; the second year the distance is from 36 to
42 inches; the third year from 60 to 65 inches; and the fourth
year from 80 to S$ inches.
Recent experiments have shown that a thin streak produces
as good results as a thick one, and has the additional advantage
that the tree is easier to chip, since the streaks do not advance
up the tree to so great a height.
The practice of running the chipped faces spirally up the tree
has been advocated in order to extend the length of time that
a tree could be worked readily. Such a plan is not impracticable
since the movement of sap is from one cell to another, through
pits in the side waUs and not straight up and down the tree.
This practice however, is not general.
*
TURPENTINE ORCHARDING 447
It is seldom profitable to operate trees for a period greater than
four years because of the reduced yield and the inferior grade
of the product.
Turpentine operators distinguish the different aged faces as
follows:
First year "Virgin "
Second year "Yearlings"
Third year "3-year-old"
Fourth year "Bucks" or "pulling boxes "
During the latter part of the third year and the fourth year the
height of the streak above ground becomes too great for the
chipper to use the short-handled "hack" and a tool called the
puller is substituted. This consists of a steel blade, similar to
that on the hack, mounted on the end of a pole about 5 feet long.
This tool is used in the same manner as a hack.
One man can chip from 2000 to 2400 boxes daily, and during
a week will attend one crop. The laborer is paid from 75 to 80
cents per thousand boxes.
Dipping. — Resin is allowed to accumulate in the box for
about four weeks when the "dip," as it is called, is collected.
This is done eight or nine times during the first year and
gradually diminishes during the following seasons until the
fourth year when three or four dips only are made. Empty
barrels are distributed by wagon at suitable intervals throughout
the crop and a laborer with a large 8- or lo-gallon wooden bucket
dips the crude turpentine from the boxes, using a flat, oval dipper
attached to a handle about 3^ feet long.
The flow is most abundant during the months of July and
August, and gradually diminishes as the season advances. In
virgin boxes it ceases during the latter part of October. Each
year the season becomes shorter. Dipping of "yearlings" closes
usually during September, and 3-year-old and bucks during the
latter part of August, or the first days of September.
The average dip per crop during a season is as follows :
Virgin crop 250 to 300 barrels ^
Yearling crop 185 barrels
3-year-old crop 125 barrels
Buck crop 125 barrels
^ Capacity, 51 gallons.
44S LOGGING
One man can dip from three to four barrels per day, and can
tend from 6000 to 10,000 boxes. He is paid from 50 to 65 cents
per barrel.
After a crop has been dipped, the barrels are hauled to the still
on a wagon drawn by two mules. A pair of skids are attached
to the rear end of the wagon and allowed to drag as it proceeds
through the orchard. Barrels usually have a patent rim, so that
a tight head may be readily placed in them in order that the
barrels may be turned on edge and rolled up the skids. A wagon
will haul six or eight barrels at one time.
Scraping. — The crude turpentine flowing over the face of the
wound, especially during the third and fourth years, when the
distance is greatest, thickens and loses some of its volatile oil,
both by evaporation and oxidation and forms over the surface
a thick coating known as scrape. This is collected after the
last dip of the season has been made. A '^ scraper" attached
to a long handle is used to free the scrape from the scarified
face.
The average amount of scrape secured each season is as
follows :
\'irgin crop 50 to 70 barrels ^
Yearling crop loo to 120 barrels
3-year-old crop 100 to 140 barrels
Buck crop 100 to 140 barrels
Scrape gatherers receive from lo to 15 cents per 100 pounds
for collecting scrape, or 40 cents for ^2$ pounds net (one barrel).
One man can collect from 1200 to 1500 pounds daily. Scrape is
collected in barrels in the same manner as dip.
Raking. — Following the collection of scrape, steps are taken
to protect boxed timber against fire. Men, women and boys
with heavy hoes remove all grass, pine needles and other debris
from the base of the tree, making a clear circular space with a
radius of 2 or 3 feet. The average day's work is from 400 to 700
trees. The contract price ranges from 20 to 35 cents per 100
trees, or from $12 to $15 per crop.
^ Capacity, 51 gallons.
TURPENTINE ORCHARDING 449
D. CUP SYSTEMS
The wastefulness of the box system early led to a search for
a better method. The first effort in this country to devise a new
receptacle was made in 1869 by a South Carolina operator, whose
invention, however, did not prove successful. A Louisiana
operator put out a cup in 1895, but it proved too expensive to
place on the trees, and was, therefore, abandoned. During the
last fifteen years numerous other devices have been brought out
but only a few of them have proved of value.
herty's cup and gutter
About ten years ago a " cup-and-gutter " system was patented^
and has since proven so practical that it has been widely adopted.
An earthen or galvanized iron pot^ or cup into which the resin is
conveyed by means of galvanized iron gutters" is hung on the
face of the tree. The cup and gutters are advanced up the tree
at the beginning of each season, so that the distance between the
streak and cup is always short. This lessens the evaporation
of volatile oils and reduces the amount of scrape. The gum
also does not absorb as much coloring matter in passing over
the scarified face, and, therefore, produces a higher grade of
rosin.
Hanging the Cups. — The work of hanging cups begins early
in the season, usually in February or early March. The organi-
zation of the crew is different from that used in cutting boxes
because of the variety of work to be performed. On some
operations a laborer armed with a hack precedes the crew and
cuts two diagonal streaks on the tree, which meet at a point
directly over the center of the face. Face cutters then follow
and, with an 8- or 9-pound broadax, cut two opposite flat faces
10 or 12 inches high and from 6 to 10 inches wide that meet at
1 Dr. Charles H. Herty, patentee.
^ The clay pots are 7 inches high; top diameter 5^ inches; bottom diameter
3 inches; capacity from i to i\ quarts. The galvanized iron pots are of approxi-
mately the same capacity.
' The gutters are made of strips 2 inches wide, bent lengthwise along the center
at an angle of 120 degrees.
45°
4.0GGING
an angle directly under the apex of the streak. On some opera-'
tions the faces are cut sometime in advance of the streak. This
practice is partly responsible for the criticism that has been
made of the cup-and-gutter system since it requires from two to
three more chippings to produce the first dip of the season than
for the box system. The reason for this is that the upper
portion of the two flat faces have oval outlines, and the resin
ducts are formed along the upper edges of the faces. The first
chipping is made from each side to the center, and only those
ducts along the center of the face are opened. On the other
Fig. 130. — A Workman cutting Incisions on the Face of the Tree, into which
Gutters are to be inserted. Herty's system.
hand, when boxes are used "cornering" makes a straight face,
and all ducts along the line of the cut are opened up by the first
streak.
The faces provide a flat surface for the gutters and for hanging
the cups. Their cost is less than box corners because they are
not cut so deep. A 12-inch broadax is then used to cut in-
cisions for the insertion of the gutters which slant at an angle
of about 40 degrees. One incision is made on each face, the
upper one being about 3 inches below the chipping face and
the lower one on the opposite side about i inch lower.
TURPENTINE ORCHARDING
451
A galvanized gutter is then inserted into each incision, the
lower gutter projecting about i^ inches past the upper one so
that it forms a spout to carry off the resin from both gutters. A
6-penny zinc nail is then driven on the face opposite the lower
gutter and in such position that the gum will drain into a cup
hung on it. Wire nails were for-
merly used for hanging cups but
they were difficult to pull from a
pitchy face and laborers often
left them in the tree, which
damaged the saws at the mill
when the timber was sawed in-
to lumber. Zinc nails are soft
enough to be cut by a band saw
without injury.
Cups are hung by crews fol-
lowing the gutter placers. At
the end of the season cups are
removed from the nails and
turned upside down by the tree,
since they break if water accu-
mulates and freezes in them.
The placement of cups and
gutters is done largely by day
labor. On an Alabama operation the crew for placing Herty
cups and gutters was composed of eighteen men whose duties
were as follows:
Fig. 131. — A Tree equipped with a
Herty Cup and Gutters. The first
streaks will be cut at the upper edge
of each face.
2 men cutting streaks
4 men cutting faces
2 men cutting incisions for
gutters
I man distributing gutters
6 men placing gutters
1 man distributing cups
2 men driving nails and hanging cups
This crew averaged about 2500 cups per day, and the average
cost per crop for labor was $100.
The second and following seasons only ten men were required
to hang the same number of cups, because the streak and face
cutters and the gutter and can distributors were not needed.
452
LOGGING
The cost of installing a crop of this character as estimated by
the inventor ^ is as follows:
Cups (10,500 at 15 cents) $131 . 25
Gutter stripping (1,886 pounds of galvanized iron, 29 gauge,
cut in 2-inch widths)
Nails (6-penny wire Dails)^
Freight charges (estimated)^
Labor at tree
Cutting and shaping gutters
103.27
30.00
80.00
4.00
Total S349-57
The cost of cutting and cornering boxes is from $250 to S3 00.
Chipping. — The chipping and pulling of a crop of cups is
performed in the same manner as for boxes.
Dipping. — The dip is col-
lected in barrels, but the form
of receptacle on the tree re-
quires some modification of the
box method for dipping. The
dipper passes from tree to tree
with his bucket, lifts the cups
from the nail and by means of
a trowel-shaped paddle scoops
the gum out of the cup, which
is then replaced on the tree.
When a tree bleeds freely extra
cups are kept hanging on nails,
and when the chipper passes
on his rounds he replaces full
cups with empty ones, hanging
the former on nails on the
lower part of the tree. By
this means no resin is lost. The
same price per barrel is paid for
dipping both cups and boxes.
Fig. 132. — A Herty Cup on a "Year-
ling" Crop. The cup was raised at
the beginning of the second season.
1 A New Method of Turpentine Orcharding, by Chas. H. Herty. Bui. 40,
U. S. Bureau of Forestry, p. 31.
^ Zinc nails have since been substituted.
^ Shipping weight approximately 25,000 pounds.
TURPENTINE ORCHARDING
453
The handling of the crop from this time on is very similar to a
crop of boxes.
Advantages of the System. — Not only is the yield of turpen-
tine increased by the use of cups, but the grade of rosin is higher
and under average conditions may be worth annually Si 50 more
per crop than that secured from boxes. The danger from fire is
also reduced, because the scarified faces do not take fire as readily
as the resinous matter in boxes.
THE MCKOY CUP
The McKoy cup is attached to the tree by means of a gal-
vanized-iron apron instead of a nail. The box is rectangular in
"'^*S^S^iSi^^i£!:i;'i^
Fig. 133. — The ]\IcKoy Cup. used for the collection of Crude Turpentine.
form, and of the following dimensions: length 12 inches, width
3j inches and depth 3^ inches. The capacity is approximately
two quarts. They are made from one piece of sheet iron folded
together into the form of a box. The apron has one concave
edge so that it will fit the bole of the tree. The back edge
of the box is turned forward and down forming a flange by
which it is attached to another flange on the outer edge of the
apron.
The tools required for hanging cups consist of a special con-
cave-edge broadax and a wooden maul. Cups and aprons are
distributed throughout the orchard to all trees that are to be
454 LOGGING
bled. Two men then follow, one using the broadax and the
other a maul. A face about 8 inches long and 6 inches wide
is cut on the bole just deep enough to expose the wood. This
removes loose bark and facilitates the hanging of the cup. A
gash is then cut into the face by holding the broadax, head
down, against the tree at a sharp angle and striking it two or
three times with the maul. The concave face of the apron is
inserted and gently driven in this incision, the wood closing
over it and holding the apron firmly in position. The cup is
then hung on the apron and the crop is ready to turn over to
the chipper.
It is claimed that two experienced men can place about
looo cups per day, and the same number of inexperienced hands
500 per day.
THE GILMER-MCCALL CUP
This cup is a radical departure from any heretofore placed on
the market. It consists of a circular glass bowl 7 inches long
and 3 inches in diameter, to the top of which is screwed a gal-
vanized cap.
This system is designed to do away with the scarification of
the bole of the tree, and at the same time prevent the evapora-
tion of volatile oils and the accumulation of dirt common in the
old-style cups and boxes.
Two |-inch holes are bored by a power- or hand-driven auger
up through the sap at an angle of about 45 degrees. These holes
start from a common point on the tree and their length varies
with the diameter of the tree, for they must not break through
the sap wood nor enter the heartwood. The average length is
about 5 inches. A circular hole is then reamed in the bark
around the two openings and the cap of the cup inserted into
it and fastened to the tree by brads. When the holes become
clogged they are reamed out. This system has not proved a
success.
The lease cost of the cups complete f.o.b. is 10 cents per cup
the first year, and 2 cents per cup each succeeding year. A
power-driven boring machine with tools complete is listed at $150.
TURPENTINE ORCHARDING 455
DISTILLATION OF CRUDE TURPENTINE
The process of distillation requires experience and care on
the part of the operator to secure the highest yields of turpen-
tine and the best grades of rosin.
The apparatus consists of a large copper retort, holding from
ten to thirty barrels/ a condensing tank, a coil and a straining
trough. The bottom of the retort is slightly arched in the
center to facilitate the withdrawal of the rosin through a large
gate valve. A detachable neck fits over a narrow mouth on
top of the retort and conveys the volatile matter to the con-
denser from which the oil and water are carried by gravity to
a barrel. The base of the retort is about 5 feet above ground,
which allows for the placement of a grate underneath and also
permits the withdrawal of the rosin from the retort by gravity.
The retort is inclosed on all sides by brick and has a stack on
one side to carry off the smoke from the fire.
The strainers through which the hot rosin is passed are three
in number, and are 30 inches wide, from 12 to 16 feet long and
1 2 inches deep and are made so they will nest. The top one has
a |-inch mesh screen to catch the bark and other coarse refuse;
the second a |-inch mesh; and the third a very fine copper mesh
over which a layer of cotton batten is placed. The latter re-
moves sediment that was not strained out previously.
Retorts are often of 25-barrel capacity, and including the
copper neck weigh about 1000 pounds. They cost approxi-
mately $750.
The following are the usual charges for a retort of the above
size:
Virgin dip 12 barrels
Yearling dip 10 barrels
3-year-old dip 10 barrels
Buck 8 barrels
Scrape 8 barrels
The older the face from which resin is secured the more it
boils up on heating, hence the retort charges for old dip are less
^ A standard barrel for crude turpentine holds 280 pounds — about one-half
the size of a 52-gallon barrel.
456 LOGGING
than for virgin. The retort is hlled from the top. After remov-
ing the neck, the dip is poured in from barrels until the re-
quired amount is secured. The fire is then started under the
retort and the mass slowly heated. If the dip is virgin the bark
as it rises to the surface is skimmed off in order to improve the
grade of rosin, for bark discolors it. Skimming is usually dis-
pensed with for dip of other ages.* The neck is now placed on
the retort and connected wdth the condenser and then securely
fastened to the retort by lugs. All joints between the neck and
retort are sealed with wet clay. The mass is then gradually
brought to the boiling point. Turpentine and water early begin
to pass over into the condenser and then by gravity run to a
storage barrel on the ground floor. Turpentine which has a
lower specific gravity than water readily separates from it and
is run off from the top of the barrel into the barrel in which it is
shipped to market. About the middle of the process a small
stream of warm water is admitted to the retort from the
condensing tank and it is allowed to run until the process is com-
pleted, which is indicated by a peculiar noise of the boiling con-
tents of the still, and also by the diminished quantity of oil in the
distillate. Great care must be taken toward the end of the proc-
ess not to burn the rosin. The process being complete the fire
is put out and the rosin is drawn off at the gate valve, and con-
ducted by a trough into the strainer tubs.
Scrape is handled in the same manner as dip, with the excep-
tion that a barrel of water is added at the start to prevent burn-
ing.
It requires from three to four hours to run a charge of crude
turpentine. Three men are usually employed on a large plant,
namely, a still tender, a helper and a cooper, who manufactures
rosin barrels. '
Turpentine is put up in 51 -gallon double-glued oak barrels
and as soon as it has cooled it is tightly corked and held ready
for market. Rosin barrels are crude affairs made of rough pine
boards, and are put together at the still. Cracks are chinked up
with clay. The usual capacity is from 500 to 560 pounds.
As soon as the rosin has cooled somewhat in the straining vat,
TURPENTINE ORCIL\RDING
457
it is dipped into the barrels and allowed to become thoroughly
hard, which takes about twenty-four hours. It is then ready
for shipment.
Rosin is separated into fourteen grades, the basis of which is
color. The best grade "W.W.," known as "water white," is
very transparent and clear, while the lowest grade "A" is black
in color.
The annual yield per crop of turpentine and rosin varies with
the number of years the trees have been bled. The average
3delds are as follows:
Turpentine.
Rosin.
Grades of rosin.
Virgin dip. . .
Yearling dip.
3-year-old dip
Bucks
Gallons.
2000-2100
2000
IIOO
800
Barrels.
260
100
100
Higher and highest grades
I. H. & G.
F. E. D.
C. B. A.
The above figures were secured at a plant where the output of
boxes and cups was distilled together.
During the last two years a crop is worked under the cup
system, the yield of turpentine and rosin is somewhat greater
and the grade of rosin higher than shown in the above table.
The usual yield from five barrels of dip is one barrel of spirits
of turpentine and three barrels of rosin; and from ten barrels
of "scrape," one barrel of spirits of turpentine and three and
one-third barrels of rosin.
Cost of a Distillation Plant. — The estimated cost of establish-
ing a turpentine orcharding plant and of working the crop for
four years is approximately $2700 where twenty or more crops
are managed together. The cost of equipment alone, for twenty
crops of boxed timber, including the still, houses, sheds, tools,
wagons and mules is about $6000.
MARKETS
Savannah is the chief market for naval stores but Jackson-
ville, Florida; Charleston, South Carolina; Wilmington, North
Carolina; and New Orleans, Louisiana are also important
centers.
458 LOGGING
The products are chiefly sold on commission. The market
price of turpentine and rosin fluctuates greatly due to market
manipulation and to unfavorable weather conditions which
influence production.
Turpentine was quoted on the Savannah market on February
24, 1913 at 42§ cents per gallon. The highest market price on
record was $1.07 per gallon obtained on March 25, 191 1; and
the lowest, 22 cents per gallon obtained on September 4, 1896.
The best grade of rosin "W.W." in the above market averaged
from $7.25 to S7.80 per barrel during the month of January,
1913, while ''B" grade brought from $4.95 to $5.60.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER XXV
Fernow, Bemhard Eduard: Effect of Turpentine Gathering on the Timber of
Longleaf Pine. Cir. 9, U. S. Division of Forestry, Washington, 1893.
Herty, Charles Holmes: A New Method of Turpentine Orcharding. Bui. 40,
U. S. Bureau of Forestry, Washington, 1903.
: Practical Results of the Cup and Gutter System of
Turpentining. Cir. 34, U. S. Bur. of For., Washington.
- : Relation of Light Chipping to the Commetcial Yield
of Naval Stores. Bui. 90, U. S. For. Ser., Washington, 191 1.
KiRSCH, Simon: The Origin and Development of Resin Canals in the Coni-
ferae with Special Reference to the Development of Tyloses and their Co-
relation with the Thylosal Strands of the Pteridophytes. Proc. Royal Soc. of
Canada, 191 1.
MoHR, Charles: The Naval Store Industry. The Timber Pines of the Southern
United States. Bui. No. 13 (revised edition), U. S. Division of Forestry,
Washington, 1897, pp. 67-73.
: The Naval Stores Industry. Report upon the Investiga-
tions of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1877-1898, Washington, 1899,
pp. 144-164.
PiNCHOT, Gifford: A New Method of Turpentine Orcharding. Cir. 24, U. S.
Bur. of For., Washington, 1903.
SuDWORTH, Geo. B.: Conservative Turpentining. Report of the National
Conservation Commission. Senate Doc. No. 676, W^ashington, 1909, pp.
498-511.
CHAPTER XXVI
HARVESTING TANBARK
The barks of the hemlock and of several species of oak were
for years the main source of the tannin supply of the United
States, but the growing scarcity of these species has led to the
introduction of various substitutes, among them quebracho wood
extract from South America and chestnut wood extract. The
eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) furnishes the only coniferous
tanbark in the East. The western hemlock {T. heterophylla) of
the Pacific Coast, which is now used only to a limited extent,
will be in demand in the future, because of the high percentage
of tannin it contains. The chief eastern oak whose bark is
used for tanning is the chestnut oak (Quercus prinus). In the
West the bark of the tanbark oak {Q. densiflora) is extensively
harvested for this purpose. Various black and white oaks are
used to a limited extent.
The average per cents of tannin contained in the barks of
different species are as follows i'^
Species.
Eastern hemlock.
Western hemlock
Tanbark oak
Chestnut oak. . . .
Spanish oak
Black oak
White oak
Red oak
Per cent.
13. II
15
I
16
46
6
25
8
59
S
90
S
99
4
56
HEMLOCK
The peeling of bark can be carried on only during the growing
season. It begins from the first to the middle of May and lasts
^ Report on the Forests of North America (exclusive of Mexico), by Charles S.
Sargent. Vol. IX, Tenth Census. Washington, D. C, 1884, p. 265.
459
460 LOGGING
until the latter part of July or the first of August, after which
time the bark sticks and cannot be removed profitably. The
best months are June and July. A crew is commonly composed
of four men, namely, one fitter, one spudder, and two log cutters.
The fitter selects the trees to be felled, then with an ax cuts a
ring through the bark around the base of the tree. He then
cuts another. ring 4 feet above the first, and splits the bark
down one side of the tree from ring to ring. The spudder then
inserts a tool knowTi as a spud between the bark and wood and
peels oft" the bark.
The tree is next felled by the log cutters, after which the
fitter girdles the bole in 4-foot sections and cuts a line through
the bark along the entire length. He also swamps oft' the limbs
that will interfere with the work of the sawyers or spudder.
The latter then removes the bark on these sections, peeling it
in as large pieces as is possible, to reduce future handhng, and
leans it, bark side out, against the fallen log to dry. This takes
from several days to a month, depending on the weather. The
log cutters now cut up the bole.
On some operations two men compose a crew, and do both
the felling and bark peeling. The timber then is not cut into
logs until later in the season when the regular logging operation
begins.
If the dry bark is not removed from the forest until snow falls,
it is piled in ricks, bark side up, to prevent the tannin from
leaching out during rainy weather. Often, as soon as dry, it
is hauled on wagons or crude sleds to the railroad. Frequently
it is transported to the base of steep mountain slopes in triangu-
lar or rectangular troughs, made in portable sections. The
workmen start near the base of the slope, sending down all bark
within a short radius of the chute. As the work progresses up
the slope new sections are added to the trough until the upper
edge of the cutting is reached. The slide is then removed and
the process repeated on a new route. On very steep pitches the
speed of the bark is checked by a board, one end of which is
hinged to a support above the slide with the other end resting
in the trough. The bark in passing raises the board and the
HARVESTING TANBARK
461
friction produced checks its speed. This method breaks up the
bark and is used only when necessary.
The preferable form of transport where the ground is not too
steep for horses is to load the bark on a sled or dray holding two
to two and one-half cords and drag it to the loading dock along
the railroad. A common form of sled consists of two 15-foot
birch poles with the rear ends dragging and the front ends
fastened to a short sled. A bunk built on the rear of the runner
carries a roller used in tightening the binding rope on the load.
Another form consists of a sled with iron wood runners 12 feet
long, turned up at both ends, so that the sled may be dragged in
either direction. The sled is equipped with stakes to hold the
bark, and also with rollers to aid in tightening the binding
ropes.
Both forms of sleds are pulled either with one or two horses.
One man with a team will haul daily from eight to ten cords, and
with one horse, from live to six cords.
Output. — A crew of two men will fell the timber and peel from
three to four cords per day. This does not include making the
tree into logs. Four men will peel from five to eight cords daily
and cut the timber into logs. A crew of the latter size can peel
about 250 cords in a season.
Peeling
Hauling:
I teamster $2.00 per day
1 teamster, board .60 per day
2 horses, labor at 2 . 00 per day
2 horses, board at i . 00 per day
$5 . 60 per day
for 9 cords.
Loading:^
7 men at $1.70 per day $11 .90
7 men, board at $.60 per day 4. 20
Total .
$16.10
for 25 cords.
Cost per cord.i
.62
.65
S3 -27
' 2240 pounds.
2 Seven men loaded 4 cars daily, each car having a capacity of from 6 to 7 cords, depending on
the care in stowing exercised by the men.
462
LOGGING
Bark peeling and handling is frequently done by contract, the
jobber receiving from S3. 50 to S4.50 per cord on the car. The
contract price on board car on a West Virginia operation, 1909,
was S4 per cord. The contractor's expense is given on page 461.
The yield of bark varies with the size of the trees and the
region in which the timber grows and is usually calculated on
the basis of the amount of timber cut. Pennsylvania operators
expect to secure one cord from 1500 to 2000 feet, log scale;
New York operators, one cord from 1700 to 2000 feet, log scale;
Michigan operators, one cord from 2000 feet, log scale; while
in Maine and West Virginia the yield is one cord from 2000 to
2500 feet, log scale.
The following data on the yield and thickness of bark on trees
of given diameter, and the weight of hemlock bark per square
foot, were secured in the Adirondack region of New York:
YIELD OF HEMLOCK BARRi
Diameter of
tree at stump.
Yield of bark.
Diameter of
tree at stump.
Yield of bark.
Inches.
In cords.2
Inches.
In cords.
9
0.020
20
0.163
10
0.026
21
0.189
II
0.036
22
0.210
12
0.045
23
0. 240
13
0.056
24
0.275
14
0.065
25
0305
15
0.078
26
0.340
16
0.091
27
0.370
17
0.106
28
0.405
18
O.I2I
29
0.440
19
0. 141
30
0.480
1 From the Fourth Annual Report of the Forest Preserve Board, 1900.
pp. 84-86.
2 2240 pounds.
THICKNESS OF BARK
Albany, N. Y., 1901
Diameter
of tree outside
bark.
Thickness of
bark.
Diameter
of tree outside
bark.
Thickness of
bark.
Inches.
7
8
9
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
Inches.
1
4
f
8
M
If
H
29
72
Inches.
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Inches.
HARVESTING TANBARK
463
WEIGHT OF HEMLOCK BARK PER SQUARE FOOT
Thickness of
bark.
Weight per
square foot.
Thickness of
bark.
Weight per
square foot .
Inches.
Pounds.
Inches.
Pounds.
3
8
I .00
I^
2.85
2
5
8
I 25
1.63
if
3
3
10
32
4
I .90
if
3
54
8
215
if
3
72
I
2.40
l|
3
92
li
2.62
2
4
12
Bark is shipped to tanneries and stored in sheds or in the
open in well constructed piles in order to prevent the bark from
becoming moist, otherwise it becomes moldy and the tannin
leaches out. As tannin is more readily extracted from dry bark
than from green it is usually seasoned for a year or more.
CHESTNUT OAK
Peeling operations are conducted from the middle of April
until the middle of June or the first of July. The general plan
of peeling and hauling bark is the same as for hemlock. ]\Iany
small operations are conducted and the bark sold f.o.b. car by
the o^\^ler to tannery agents. The ruling price in \'irginia and
West Virginia during the summer of 1911 was $8.50 per cord
on the car.
The average cost per cord of harvesting chestnut oak bark
in the Appalachians is as follows : ^
Cutting, peeling, and curing, per cord $1 . 25-1 .50
Cartying and sledding, per cord .90-1 .45
Sleds and sledding roads, per cord .15- .30
Total 82.30-3. 25
Tanbark from the headwaters of the Potomac river in West
Virginia in 1911 was delivered at Edinburgh Virginia, 16 miles
distant, at approximately the following cost per cord :
Stumpage So. 50 to o . 75
Cutting, peeling, and bringing to the wagon road i . 50
Wagon haul, 16 miles 4 . 00
Loading on car o • 35
Total S6 . 60
^From Logging, Lumbering, or Forest Utilization, by C. A. Schenck.
464
LOGGING
The average value per cord, f.o.b. car, was $8.
The approximate yield of bark is one cord from 1500 feet, log
scale, Doyle rule. The yield from individual trees in the Appa-
lachian region is as follows:
YIELD OF BARK IN RELATION TO DIAMETER OF TREE^
Diameter,
breast high.
Yield of bark.
Diameter,
breast high.
Yield of bark.
Inches.
Cords.
Inches.
Cords. 2
10
0.06
21
0.17
II
0.06
22
0. 19
12
0.07
23
0. 20
13
0.08
24
0.22
14
O.OQ
2S
0.24
IS
0. 10
26
0.26
16
0. II
27
0.28
17
0.12
28
0.30
18
0.13
29
0.32
19
CIS
30
0.34
20
0.16
> From Chestnut Oak in the Appalachians. Circular 135, U. S. Forest Service, p. 11.
' 2240 pounds.
TANBARK OAK
The tanbark oak is a native of southwestern Oregon and of
California, where the harvesting of tanbark has been an im-
portant industry for many years. The peeling season begins
about May 20 and lasts until the middle of August, although it
can be done best during the latter part of the season for the
bark is then tougher and does not break readily.
There is a variation in the length of the peehng season, be-
cause the trees are very sensitive to changes in temperature.
Individual trees also show a decided difference in their peeling
qualities.
Peelers work in pairs and use only a single-bitted ax. The
tree is first girdled at 4 feet above ground, again at the ground,
and the bark then slit and pried off with an ax. The tree is
then felled and the bark ringed and peeled off in the same man-
ner as in hemlock. The work is continued up the bole until
the bark becomes less than | inch in thickness. The "coils"
of bark are laid on the ground, bark side down, and allowed
HARVESTING T.\NBARK
465
to dry and curl up. Trees from 3 inches and up in diameter
are also peeled. It is customary to cut one or two coils from
standing poles from 3 to 8 inches in diameter. This is called
''jayhawking" and is very wasteful because the yield per tree
is low and good bark which cannot be reached is often left on
the upper portion of the tree. On other trees the bark is
removed up to the large Hmbs only. An average workman
will peel from one to one and one-half cords of bark daily,
and an expert on big timber may occasionally peel four or five
cords.
In three weeks the bark is dry enough to haul. It is then
bunched by hand in small piles to which narrow sled roads are
cut, and down these the bark is sledded to wagon roads and
again piled. It is then hauled to market or railroad on wagons
which carry from three to four cords each. In rough places the
bark is sometimes transported to the roads on mules. From
250 to 400 pounds of bark are loaded on a pack saddle and
carried by one animal. After the bark has been hauled to the
wagon roads, men are sent through the forest to collect and
sack the chips. These come chiefly from the base of the tree
and are richer in tannin than the bark from any other part of
the bole.
The average yield of bark is from one and one-fourth to two
cords per acre, with a maximum of eight cords.
AMOUNT OF TANBARK ON TANBARK OAK TREES OF
DIFFERENT SIZES^
Diameter.
Height.
Length of peeled
trunk.
Weight of bark.
Dry weight of
bark (calculated).
Inches.
Feet.
Feet.
Pounds.
Pounds.
4- 9
30- 50
4- 8
15- 80
10- 70
10-12
40- 80
16-32
80- 350
70- 250
13-18
80-100
32-65
350- 900
250- 650
19-24
90-120
65-80
900-1700
650-1200
24-36
I15-140
80-95
1700-2500
1 200- 1 800
36-48
100-120
80-90
2500-4000
1800-2800
48-60
100-120
80-90
3500-8000
2500-5700
1 From the California Tan Bark Oak, by Willis Linn Jepson and H. S. Betts. Bulletin 75, U. S.
Forest Service, p. 10.
466 LOGGING
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE TO CHAPTER XXVI
Hough, F. B.: Statistics of Forest Products Used as Tanning Materials.
Report on Forestrj' Submitted to Congress by the Commissioner of Agricul-
ture, Washington, 1882, pp. 68-128.
Jepson, W. L., and Betts, H. S.: California Tan Bark Oak, Bui. No. 75, U. S.
Forest Service, Washington, 191 1.
APPENDIX
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AERIAL TRAMS
Anonymous: Aerial Snubbing Device. The Timberman, Portland, Oregon,
April, 191 2, pp. 49 and 52.
Anonymous: A Newly Patented Aerial Logging Railway. Western Lumber-
man, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, December, 1912, pp. 40-41.
FoRSTER, G. R.: Das forstliche Transportwesen, Wien, 1888, pp. 242-250.
Gayer, Karl: Forest Utilization. (Schlich's Manual of Forestry; trans, from
the German by W. R. Fisher, second edition.) Bradbury, Agnew and Com-
pany, Ltd., London, 1908. pp. 346-352.
Newby, F. E. : Handling Logs on Steep Ground with a Gravity Cable System.
The Timberman, August, 1910, pp. 31-32.
Steinbus, Ferdinand: Die Holzbringung im bayerischen Hochgebirge unter
den heutigen wirtschaftlichen Verhaltnissen, Munchen, 1897, pp. 31-39.
ANIMALS
Allen, E. W.: The Feeding of Farm Animals. Farmers' Bui. No. 22, U. S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1901.
Engineer Field Manual, Parts I-VI. Professional Papers No. 29, Corps
of Engineers, U. S. Army. Third (revised) edition, Washington, 1909, pp.
427-452.
Langworthy, C. F.: Principles of Horse Feeding. Farmers' Bui., No. 170,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1903.
FOREST PROTECTION
Adams, Daniel W.: Methods and Apparatus for the Prevention and Control
of Forest Fires, as Exemplified on the Arkansas National Forest. Bui. 113,
U. S. Forest Service, Washington, 191 2.
Anonymous: Erlaiiterungen der Waldversicherungseinrichtungen der Glad-
bacher Feuerversicherungs Gesellschaft. Druck von Weisz und Zimmer in
M. Gladbach, 1904, p. 16.
Graves, Henry S.: Protection of Forests from Fire. Bui. 82, U. S. For. Ser.,
1912.
: Principles of Handling Woodlands. John Wiley & Sons.,
New York, 191 1.
Plummer, Fred G.: Forest Fires: Their Causes, Extent and Effects, with a
Summary of Recorded Destruction and Loss. Bui. 117, U. S. For. Ser.,
Washington, 191 2.
Record, S. J.: Forest Fire Insurance in Germany. Proceedings of the Society
of American Foresters, Vol. II, No. 3, Washington, D. C, 1907, pp. 95-102.
469
47° APPENDIX
Stephen, John \V.: Report on Lopping Branches in Lumbering Operations,
State of New York. Forest, Fish and Game Comm., .\nnual Reports, 1907-
1909, Albany, pp. 210-217.
WooLSEY, Jr., T. S.: Western Yellow Pine in Arizona and New Mexico. U.S.
For. Ser. Bui. loi, Washington, 1911, pp. 53-54.
GENERAL
Braniff, Edward A.: Scientific Management and the Lumber Business.
Forestry Quarterly, Vol. X, No. i, pp. 9-14.
Cary, Austin: Influence of Lumbering upon Forestrj'. Proceedings of the
Society of .American Foresters, Vol. Ill, No. i, Washington, D. C, 1908,
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: A ^Manual for Northern Woodsmen. Published by
Harvard University, Cambridge, ]SIass., 1909.
DEFEBArcH, J. E. : Histor}' of the Lumber Industry of .America. The .\merican
Lumberman, Chicago, Illinois, Vol. II, 1907.
Gayer, Karl: Forest Utilization (V^ol. V of Schlich's Manual of Forestrj-;
trans, from the German by W. R. Fisher, second edition). London, Bradbury,
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United States: I. Cedars, Cypresses and Sequoias, Bui. 95; II. Pines, Bui. 99,
U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C, 1911.
Hedgecock, George Grant: Studies upon some Chromogenic Fungi which
Discolor Woods. ^Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Seventeenth .\nnual
Report, 1906, pp. 59-114.
Hopkins, A. D.: Waste and Reduction of Timber Supphes Caused by Insects
and ^lethods of Prevention and Control. Report National Conser\'ation
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1912.
MoRRELL, F. W.: Factors Influencing Logging and Liunbering Costs in Colo-
rado National Forests. Forest Club .\nnual, University of Nebraska,
Lincoln, 191 1, Vol. Ill, p. 7.
ScHENCK, C. A.: Logging, Lumbering or Forest Utihzation. Darmstadt,
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Sessoms, H. W.: Systematic Logging Camp Records. The Timberman,
Portland, Oregon, Juty, 191 1, pp. 33-36.
TERiis Used in Forestry and Logging. Bui. 61, U. S. Bur. of Forestry,
Washington, 1905.
The .\merican Lumber Industry. Official Report Tenth .Annual Meeting
National Lumber Manufacturers' .\ssociation, Chicago, 1912.
The Lumber Industry. Part I, Standing Timber, Report of the Bureau of
Corporations, Department of Commerce and Labor, Washington, 1913.
The National Forest Manttal. U. S. Forest Service, Washington, 19 11.
Von Schrznck, Hermann: The "Bluing" and "Red Rot" of the Western
APPENDIX 471
Yellow Pine, with Special Reference to the Black Hills Forest Reserve. Bui.
No. 36, U. S. Bur. of Plant Industry, Washington, 1903.
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Quarterly, Vol. X, No. 2, pp. 139-183.
LOGGING CAMPS
Wastell, a. B.: A Logging Camp on Wheels. The Timberman, August, 1910,
pp. 50-51.
LOGGING METHODS IN SPECIFIC REGIONS
Appalachians.
Boisen, a. T., and Newlin, J. A.: The Commercial Hickories. Bui. 80, U. S.
Forest Service, Washington, 1910, pp. 10-13.
Chittentjen, Alfred K.: The Red Gum. Bui. No. 58, U. S. Bur. of Forestry,
Washington, 1905, pp. 17-22.
Foley, John: Conser\-ative Lumbering at Sewanee, Tennessee. Bui. No. 39,
U. S. Bur. of Forestr}', Washington, 1903.
ZoN, Raphael: Management of Second-Growth in the Southern Appalachians.
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Shields, R. W.: Logging in the Dismal Swamp. The Penn. State Farmer,
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Lake States.
H.\MEL, A. G.: Logging in Wisconsin. Forest Club Annual, 1909, University
of Nebraska, Lincoln, pp. 66-70.
Northeast.
Anonymous: Camp Operations in Northern Ontario. Canada Lumberman
and Woodworker, September, 191 1, pp. 66-70.
: Lumbering in New Hampshire. Biennial Report of
the Forestry Commission, State of New Hampshire, for the years 1903-1904,
Concord, 1904, pp. 98-102.
Cary, Austin: Practical Forestry on a Spruce Tract in Maine. Cir. 131, U. S.
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Dana, S. T.: Paper Birch in the Northeast. Cir. 163, U. S. For. Ser., Wash-
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Fox, William F.: A Historj- of the Lumber Industr>' of the State of New York.
Bui. 34, U. S. Bureau of Forestry, Washington, 1902, p. 59.
Frothingham, Earl H.: Second-growth Hardwoods in Connecticut. Bui. 96,
U. S. For. Ser., Washington, 1912, pp. 20-23.
Hawley, R. C, and Hawes, A. F.: Forestry in New England. John Wiley
and Sons, New York, 191 2. pp. 235-243.
HosMER, Ralph S., and Bruce, Eugene S.: A Forest Working Plan for Towq-
ship 40. Bui. No. 30, U. S. Div. of For., Washington, 1901, pp. 42-63.
472 APPENDIX
Weigle, W. G., and Frothingham, E. H.: The Aspens; Their Growth and
Management. Bui. 93, U. S. For. Ser., Washington, 191 1, p. 10.
WiLLi.\iis, Asa S.: The Mechanical Traction of Sleds. Forestry Quarterly,
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Chapii.\x, C. S.: A Working Plan for Forest Lands in Berkeley County, South
Carolina. Bui. No. 56, U. S. Bur. of For.. Washington, 1905, pp. 29-30.
CHAPiLA.N, H. H.: An Experiment in Logging Longleaf Pine. Forestry
Quarterly, Vol. VII, pp. 3S5-395.
Foster, J. H.: Forest Conditions in Louisiana. Bui. 114, U. S. For. Ser.,
Washington, 1912, pp. 28-31.
Reed, Franklin W. : A Working Plan for Forest Lands in Central Alabama.
Bui. No. 68, U. S. For. Ser., Washington, 1905, pp. 30-33.
Southwest.
Woolsey, Jr., T. S.: Western Yellow Pine in Arizona and New Mexico. Bui.
loi, U. S. For. Ser., Washington, 1911, p. 43.
West.
Allen, E. T.: The Western Hemlock. Bui. No. a, U. S. Bur. of For., 1902,
pp. 28-30.
Berry, Swift: Notes on the ^lanagement of Redwood Lands. Proceedings of
the Society of .\merican Foresters, Vol. VI, No. i, Washington, 191 1, pp.,
104-107.
Cooper, Albert W.: Sugar Pine and Western Yellow Pine in California. Bui.
No. 69, U. S. For. Ser., Washington, 1906, pp. 30-34.
EcKBO, Nels B.: Logging in the Redwoods. Forestry- Quarterly, Vol. VII,
No. 2, pp. 139-142.
GREENAiiYRE, H. H.: Lumbering in Colorado. Forest Club Annual, 1909,
Univ'ersity of Nebraska, Lincoln, pp. 43-60.
Hallett, W. E. S. : Lumbering Cottonwood in Nebraska. Forest Club Annual,
1909, Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln, pp. 35-38.
Hoffman, Bruce: The Sitka Spruce of Alaska. Proceedings of the Society of
American Foresters, Vol. VII, No. 2, pp. 232-235.
Peed, W. W. : ^Methods Employed and the Costs Incident to Logging Redwood.
The Timberman, August, 1909, pp. 28-29.
POLLEYS, E. G.: A Northern Idaho Lumbering Operation. The Forest Club
Annual, 1910, Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln, pp. 104-111.
Ross, Kenneth: Logging by Rail in Montana. The Timberman, August,
1912, p. 47.
Spenser, F. F.: ^Modern Sugar and Yellow Pine Operations in California.
The Timberman, August, 191 2, pp. 70-73.
West Virginia.
Farquhar, Henry H. : Cost of Mountain Logging in West Virginia. Forestry'
Quarterly, Vol. VII, pp. 255-269.
Rothkugel, Max: ^Management of Spruce and Hemlock Lands in West Vir-
ginia. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. VI, pp. 40-46.
APPENDIX 473
LOGGING RAILROADS
Constntclion.
Byrkit, G. M.: Machine for Picking up Railroad Track. The Timberman,
Portland, Oregon, August, 191 2, p. 48.
Byrne, Austin T. : Highway Construction. John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1901.
Engineer Field Manual: Parts I-\T, Professional Papers No. 29, Corps of
Engineers, U. S. Army. Third (revised) Edition, Washington, 1909.
Engineers' Hant) Book: Useful Information for Practical ]Men. Compiled
for E. I. duPont deNemours Powder Company, Wilmington, Delaware,
1908.
Gillette, H. P. : Earthwork and its Cost. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
1912.
: Hand Book of Cost Data. Myron C. Clark Pub. Co.,
Chicago, 1910.
Johnson, J. B.: Theory and Practise of Surv'eying. John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1901.
Railro.\d Engineering, Highways, Paving, City Surveying. International
Library of Technology, Vol. 35B, Scranton, Pa.,
SoMERViLLE, S. S.: Building Logging Railroads with a Pile-driver. The
Timberman, August, 1909, pp. 37-38.
Tracy, John Clinton: Plane Surv^eying. John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1908.
Inclines.
Clark, A. W.: Overcoming Grades too Steep for Geared Locomotives. The
Timberman, Portland, Oregon, August, 1909, p. 34.
MacLafferty, T. H.: Handling Logging Trains on Excessive Grades. The
Timberman, July, 1911, p. 44.
Nestos, R. R.: Aerial Snubbing Device. The Timberman, August, 1912,
p. 49.
Potter, E. O.: Utilization of the Cable Locomotive. The Timberman,
August, 1909, p. 34.
Wentworth, G. K.: Lowering Logs on a 3200-foot Incline. The Timberman,
August, 1909, p. 34.
Williams, Asa S.: Logging by Steam. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. Yl, pp. 19-21.
Loading and unloading log cars.
Anonyiious: Swinging "Gill-poke" Unloader. The Timberman, Portland,
Oregon, October, 1909, p. 23.
EvENSON, O. J.: An Improved Log-loading System. The Timberman, August,
1912, p. 52.
O'GORMAN, J. S.: Unloading Log Cars with a Stationary Rig. The Timber-
man, August, 1909, p. 48.
O'Hearne, James: Tilting Log Dumps. The Timberman, August, 191 2,
pp. 68-69.
Van Orsdel, John T.: Cableway Loading System. The Timberman, July,
1911, p. 46.
474 APPENDIX
Location.
Ellis, L. R.: Necessity for an Accurate Topographic Map in Logging Opera-
tions. Timberman, July, 191 1, pp. 49-53.
Henry, H. P.: Advantages of Topographic Surveys and Logging Plans. The
Timberman, August, 191 2, pp. 65-67.
Peed, W. W.: Necessity for the Logging Engineer in Modern Logging Opera-
tions. The Timberman, August, 1910, pp. 47-49.
Rankin, R. L. : Practical Topographical Surveys for Building Logging Roads.
The Timberman, March, 1912, p. 27.
Van Orsdel, John P.: Topographic Survey and its Economic Value in Logging
Operations. The Timberman, August, 1910, p. 64.
: How to Obtain the Highest Practical Efficiency in
Woods Operations. The Timberman, September, 1910, pp. 48-51.
Wood, A. B.: Accurate Topographic Map is a Good Investment in Logging
Operations. The Timberman, August, 191 2, p. 67.
Motive power and rolling stock.
Earle, Robert T. : Adaptabilit}' of the Gypsy Locomotive for Logging Purposes.
The Timberman, August, 1910, pp. 34-35.
Engineer Field Manual: Parts I-VI, Professional Papers No. 29, Corps of
Engineers, U. S. Army. Third (revised) Edition, Washington, 1909.
Evans, W. P.: The IMallet Locomotive in the Field of Logging Operations.
The Timberman, August, 1910, pp. 61-64.
IvES, J. F.: UtiHzation of Compressed Air on Logging Trucks. The Timber-
man, August, 19 10, p. 60.
IvES, J. F.: Fuel Oil as a Substitute for Wood and Coal in Logging. The
Timberman, August, 1909, p. 39.
Harp, C. A.: The Gasoline Locomotive and its AvailabiUty for Logging
Roads. The Timberman, August, 1910, pp. 57-58.
Russell, C. W.: Utilization of Air on Logging Trucks. The Timberman,
August, 1910, p. 58.
TuRNEY, Harry: Adjustable Air-brake Equipment for the Control of Detached
Trucks. The Timberman, August, 1912, p. 54.
LOG RULES AND SCALING
Cary, Austin: A Manual for Northern Woodsmen. Published by Harvard
University, Cambridge, Mass., 1901.
Clark, Judson F.: The Measurement of Saw Logs. Forestry Quarterly,
Vol. IV, No. 2, 1906, pp. 79-93.
Forest Service: U. S. Department of Agriculture. The National Forest
Manual, Washington, 191 1.
Graves, Henry Solon: Forest Mensuration. John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1906.
: The Woodsman's Handbook (revised and enlarged).
Bulletin 36, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, 1910.
— : Recent Log Rules. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. VII, 1909,
pp. 144-146.
APPENDIX 475
TiEMANN, H. D.: The Log Scale in Theory and Practice. Proceedings of the
Society of American Foresters, Vol. V, No. i, Washington, 1910, pp. 18-58.
WooLSEY, Jr., T. W.: Scaling Government Timber. Forestry Quarterly,
Vol. V, No. 2, 1907.
ZiEGLER, E. A.: The Standardizing of Log Measures. Proceedings of the
Society of American Foresters, Vol. IV, No. 2, 1909, pp. 172-184.
ZoN, Raphael: Factors Influencing the Volume of Wood in a Cord. Forestry
Quarterly, Vol. I, pp. 126-133.
POWER LOGGING
Barry, E. J.: Advantages Accruing to the Adoption of Electricity in Logging.
The Timberman, August, 191 2, pp. 32-33.
Cole, C. O.: Difl&culties Confronting Electric Log Haulage. The Timberman,
August, 191 2, pp. 36-37.
HiNE, Thomas W.: Utility of the Duplex Logging Engine and the Duplex Sys-
tem of Yarding. The Timberman, August, 1910, pp. 36-37.
Kalb, Henrj' A.: Utilization of Compressed Air for Snubbing Logs. The
Timberman, August, 1912, p. 53.
Mereen, J. D.: Substitution of Electricity for Steam in Modern Logging Oper-
ations. The Timberman, August, 1912, pp. 29-30.
Stimson, Chas. W.: i\doption of the Lidgerwood Skidder System (cableway)
in Logging Fir Timber. The Timberman, August, 1909, pp. 56-57.
Thompson, Jas. R.: Use of Electricity on Logging Operations. The Timber-
man, August, 1910, p. 64L.
Williams, Asa S.: Logging by Steam. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. VI, No. i,
PP- 1-33-
SLIDES
Fankhauser, Dr.: Rieswege in dem Ostalpen. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir
Forstwesen, March and April, 1906, pp. 69-77 and 113-122.
Forster, G. R.: Das Forstliche Transportwesen. Verlag von Moritz Perles,
Wien, 1888. pp. 45-68.
Gayer, Karl: Forest Utilization (Schlich's Manual of Forestry, Vol. V; trans.
by W. R. Fisher). Bradbury, Agnew and Company, Ltd., London, 1908.
PP- 316-322.
Von Almburg. Dr. F. Augenholzer: Beitrag zur Kenntnis der dynamischen
Vorgange beim Abriesen des Holzes in Holzriesen. Centralblatt fiir das
gesamte Forstwesen, April, 1911, pp. 161-179.
STANDING TIMBER IN THE UNITED STATES
Bradfield, Wesley: Standing Timber in Wood Lots. Report of the National
Conservation Commission, Senate Document No. 676, 60th Congress, 2nd
Session, Vol. II, 1909, pp. 181-187.
HoMANS, G. M.: Standing Timber in Possession of the Federal Government.
Report of the National Conservation Commission, Sen. Doc. No. 676, Vol. II,
1909, pp. 192-195.
476 APPENDIX
Kellogg, R. S.: Original Forests. Report of National Conservation Com-
mission, Sen. Doc. 676, 60th Congress, Vol. II, 1909, pp. 179-180.
Peters, J, Girvin: Standing Timber Owned by the States. Report National
Cons. Comm., Sen. Doc. 676, Vol. II, 1909, p. 191.
Smith, Herbert Knox: Stand of Timber. Report of National Conservation
Commission, Sen. Doc. 676, Vol. II, 1909, pp. 188-190.
The Lumber Industry: Part I, Standing Timber. Bureau of Corporations,
Dept. of Commerce and Labor, 1913.
ZoN, Raphael: Foreign Sources of Timber Supply. Report of National Con-
servation Commission, Sen. Doc. 676, Vol. II, 1909, pp. 280-370.
TAN BARK INDUSTRY
Hough, F. B.: Statistics of Forest Products Used as Tanning Materials.
Report on Forestry submitted to Congress by the Commissioner of Agri-
culture, Washington, 1882, pp. 68-128.
Jepson, W. L., and Betts, H. S.: California Tan Bark Oak. Bui. No. 75,
U. S. Forest Service, Washington, 191 1.
TIMBER BONDS
Bartreli, E. E.: Questions of Law Encountered in Timber Bond Issues,
Annals of the American Academy, Supplement, May, 191 2, Philadelphia,
pp. 23-24.
Braniff, E. a.: Timber Bonds. Proceedings of the Society of American
Foresters, Vol. VII, No. i, Washington, 1912, pp. 58-79.
CuMMiNGS, W. J.: Waste Material as a Source of Profit and Added Security
on Timber Bonds. Annals of Am. Acad., SuppL, May, 191 2, Phila., pp. 76-80.
Jones, A. F.: Accountants Relation to Timber Bond Issues. Annals of Am.
Acad., Suppl., May, 1912, Phila., pp. 51-58.
Lacey, J. D.: Science of Timber Valuation. Annals of Am. Acad., Suppl.,
May, 1912, Phila., pp. 9-22.
McGrath, T. S.: Timber Bonds. Craig-Wayne Co., Chicago, 1911.
: Timber Bond Features. Annals of Am. Acad., Suppl.,
May, 191 2, Phila.
Sackett, H. S. : Timberland Bonds as an Investment. American Lumberman,
Chicago, Illinois, January 25, 1913, pp. 33-35.
TURPENTINE ORCHARDING
Fernow, Bernhard Eduard: Effect of Turpentine Gathering on the Timber of
Longleaf Pine. Cir. 9, U. S. Division of Forestry, Washington, 1893.
Herty, Charles Holmes: A New Method of Turpentine Orcharding. Bui. 40,
U. S. Bureau of Forestry, Washington, 1903.
: Practical Results of the Cup and Gutter System of
Turpentining. Cir. 34, U. S. Bur. of For., Washington.
Relation of Light Chipping to the Commercial Yield
of Naval Stores. Bui. 90, U. S. For. Ser., Washington, 1911.
APPENDIX 477
KiRSCH, Simon : The Origin and Development of Resin Canals in the Conif-
erae with Special Reference to the Development of Tyloses and their Co-
relation with the Thylosal Strands of the Pteridophytes. Proceedings Royal
Society of Canada, 191 1.
MoHR, Charles: The Naval Store Industry. The Timber Pines of the Southern
United States, Bui. No. 13 (revised edition), U. S. Division of Forestn,',
Washington, 1897, pp. 67-73.
: The Naval Stores Industry. Report upon the In-
vestigations of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1877-1898, Washington, 1899,
pp. 144-164.
PiNCHOT, Giflford: A New Method of Turpentine Orcharding. Cir. 24, U. S.
Bur. of For., Washington, 1903.
SuDWORTH, Geo. B.: Conservative Turpentining. Report of the National
Conservation Commission, Senate Doc. No. 676, Washington, 1909, pp.
498-511.
WASTE IN LOGGING
Bryant, R. C: The Close Utilization of Timber. Bui. 2, Part 2, Yale Forest
'■■ School, New Haven, Conn., 1913.
Gary, Austin: Practical Forestry on a Spruce Tract in Maine. Cir. 131, U. S.
For. Service, pp. 5-6.
Clapp, Earle H.: Conserv^ative Logging. Report of the National Conserva-
tion Commission, Senate Document No. 676, 60th Congress, 2nd session,
1909, pp. 512-546.
Lauderburn, D. E.: Elimination of Waste in Logging. Paper Trade Journal,
New York, Februarj^ 20, 1913, pp. 189-199.
Peters, J. Girvin: Waste in Logging Southern Yellow Pine. Yearbook, U. S.
Dept. of Agriculture, 1905, pp. 483-494.
Upson, A. T. : Waste in Logging and Milling in Colorado. The Forest Club
Aimual, 1910, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, pp. 66-77.
WATER TRANSPORT
Flumes.
Robertson, J. E.: The Log Flimie as a Means of Transporting Logs. The
Timberman, August, 1909, pp. 45-46.
Starbird, W. D.: Flumes. The Timberman, August, 1912, pp. 42-44.
Steel, Francis R.: Lumber Flumes. Bulletin of the Harvard Forest Club,
Vol. I, 191 1.
Streams.
A Digest of the Laws Relating to Logging which have been Enacted in the
Dififerent States. Polk's Lumber Directory, 1904-1905, R. L. Polk and Co.,
Chicago, pp. 96-1 50E.
Barrows, H. K., and Babb, C. C: Log Driving and Lumbering. Water
Resources of the Penobscot River, Maine. Water Supply Paper 279, U. S.
Geological Survey, Washington, 1912, pp. 211-220.
478 APPENDIX
Bridges, J. B.: Definition of the Law Governing the Use of Driving Streams.
The Timberman, August, 1910, pp. 64F and 64G.
: Laws Governing the Use of Streams for Logging
Purposes (Pacific Coast). The Timberman, August, 1909, pp. 49-51-
Fastabend, John A.: Ocean Log Rafting. The Timberman, August, 1909,
pp. 38-39.
A PARTL\L LIST OF TRADE JOURNALS PUBLISHED IN THE
INTEREST OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY
American Lumberman. Chicago, Illinois. Weekly, $4. (General.)
Barrel and Box. Chicago, Illinois. Monthly, $1.50. (Cooperage and box trade.)
Canada Lnmherynan and Woodworker. Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Monthly,
$2. (General.)
Hardwood Record. Chicago. Semi-monthly, $2. (Hardwood trade.)
Lumber Trade Journal. New Orleans, La. Semi-monthly, $2. (Southern lum-
ber trade.)
Lumber World Review. Chicago. Semi-monthly, $2. (General.)
New York Lumber Trade Journal. New York. Semi-monthly, $2. (Eastern
lumber trade.)
Paper Trade Journal. New York. Weekly, $4. (Paper and pulp trade.)
Pioneer Western Lumberman. San fFrancisco, California. Semi-monthly, $2.
(Pacific Coast lumber interests, especially in California.)
St. Louis Lumberman. St. Louis, Missouri. Semi-monthly, $2. (General, al-
though chiefly devoted to yellow pine interests.)
Southern Industrial and Lumber Review. Houston, Texas. Monthly, $1.
(Southwestern lumber interests.)
Southern Lumber Journal. Wilmington, North Carolina. Monthly, $3. (At-
lantic Coast lumber interests.)
Southern Lumberman. Nashville, Tennessee. Weekly, $4. (General, although
devoted largely to the hardwood interests.)
The Timberman. Portland, Oregon. Monthly, $2. (Pacific Coast interests,
chiefly logging.)
West Coast Lumberman. Tacoma, Washington. Monthly, $1. (West Coast
lumber interests.)
Western Lumberman. Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Monthly, $2. (Canadian
lumber interests.)
Wood Craft. Cleveland, Ohio. Monthly, $1. (Wood-working industries.)
Wood Worker. Indianapolis, Indiana. Monthly, $1. (Wood-working in-
dustries.)
TERMS USED IN LOGGING
TERMS USED IN LOGGING ^
[Letters in parentheses following definitions indicate the forest regions (see Fig. i) in which the
terms as defined are used.
(Gen.) = General = In all forest regions of the United States.
(C. H. F.) = Central Hardwood Forest.
(N. F.) = Northern Forest.
(App.) = Appalachian Forest.
(L. S.) = Lake States Forest.
(N. W.) = North Woods.
fS. F.) = Southern Forest.
(R. M. F.) = Rocky Mountain Forest.
(P. C. F.) = Pacific Coast Forest.
In a few instances very local terms are ascribed to a State instead of to a forest region.]
Alder grab. The stem of an alder, or other small tree, which is bent over and
plugged into a hole bored in a boom stick, or secured in some other way,
to hold a boom or logs inshore. (N. F.)
Alligator, n. i. A boat used in handling floating logs. It can be moved
overland from one body of water to another by its own power, usually
apphed through drum and cable. (N. W., L. S.)
2. A device, often made from the fork of a tree, on which the front end
of a log is placed to facilitate skidding on swampy ground. (S. F.)
Anchor line. A line attached to a small buoy and to one fluke of an anchor
used in towing a raft of logs. It is employed to free the anchor when fast
to rocks or snags. (N. F.)
Apron, n. i. A platform projecting downstream from the sluiceway of a
dam to launch well into the stream logs which pass through the sluiceway.
(Gen.)
2. A platform built of timbers at the foot of a slide, which guides in the
desired direction logs leaving the slide. (Gen.)
Ark, n. See Wanigan.
Back line. See Haul back.
Ballhooter, n. One who rolls logs down a hillside. (App.)
Bank, v. See Bank up, to.
Bank, n. i. See Landing.
2. The logs cut or skidded in one day above the required amount and
held over by the saw crew or skidders, to be reported when the required
daily number is not reached. (N. F.)
^ From Terms Used in Forestry and Logging, Bui. 6i, U. S. Bureau of For-
estry, Washington, 1905.
482 APPENDIX
Banking ground. See Landing.
Bank up, to. To pile up logs on a landing. (Gen.)
Syn.: bank.
Barker, n. One who peels bark in gathering tanbark. (Gen.)
Syn.: peeler, spudder.
Barking iron. See Spud.
Bark mark. A symbol chopped into the side of a log to indicate its owner-
ship; when used with the end mark it serves as an additional means of
identification. (Gen.) See Mark.
Syn.: side mark. (N. F.)
Bark marker. One who cuts the bark mark on logs. (Gen.)
Barn boss. One who has charge of the stables in a logging camp. (Gen.)
Syn.: feeder. (N. W.)
Batten, n. A log less than 1 1 inches in diameter at the small end. (Maine.)
Battery, n. Two or more donkey engines for dragging logs, set at intervals
on a long skid road. (P. C. F.)
Beaver, n. See Swamper.
Becket, ;/. A large hook used in loading logs on cars by means of tackle.
(P. C. F.)
Bed a tree, to. To level up the path in which a tree is to fall, so that it may
not be shattered. (P. C. F.)
Bicycle, n. A traveling block, used on a cable in steam skidding. (S. F.)
Bigness scale. Sec Full scale.
Big Wheels. See Logging wheels.
Binder, n. A springy pole used to tighten a binding chain. (Gen.)
Syn. : jim binder.
Binding chain. A chain used to bind together a load of logs. (Gen.)
Syn.: wrapper chain. (N. F.)
Binding Logs. Logs placed on the top of the chain binding a load, in order
to take up the slack. (Gen.)
Birl, V. To cause a floating log to rotate rapidly by treading upon it. (Gen.)
Bitch chain. A short, heavy chain with hook and ring, used to fasten the
lower end of a gin pole to a sled or car when loading logs. (N. F.)
Blaze, V. To mark, by cutting into trees, the course of a boundary, road,
trail or the Hke. (Gen.)
Syn.: spot. (N. W.)
Block, /;. See Brail.
Blow down. See Windfall.
Blue jay. See Road monkey.
Bluing, n. The result of fungus attack, which turns the sapwood of certain
trees blue. (Gen.)
Bob, n. See Dray.
Bobber, n. See Deadhead.
Bob logs, to. To transport logs on a bob or dray. (N. F.)
APPENDIX 483
Body wood. Cord wood cut from those portions of the stem of trees which
are clear of branches. (N. F.)
Bolster, n. See Bunk.
Boom, ;/. Logs or timbers fastened together end to end and used to hold
floating logs. The term sometimes includes the logs inclosed, as a boom
of logs. (Gen.)
Boomage, n. Toll for use of a boom. (Gen.)
Boom buoy. Sec Boom stay.
Boom chain. A short chain which fastens boom sticks end to end. (Gen.)
Boom company. A corporation engaged in handling floating logs, and
owning booms and booming privileges. (N. F.)
Boom pin. A wooden plug used to fasten to boom sticks the chain, rope, or
withe which holds them together. (Gen.)
Boom rat. One who works on a boom. (N. F.)
Boom stay. A heavy weight used to anchor booms in deep water; its
position is indicated by a pole or float attached to it. (N. F.)
Syn. : boom buoy.
Boom stick. A timber which forms part of a boom. (Gen.)
Bottle butted. See Swell butted.
Bottom sill. See Mudsill.
Brail, v. To fasten logs in brails.
Brail, «. A section of a log raft, six of which make an average tow. (L. S.)
Syn.: block. (S. F.)
Brake sled. A logging sled so constructed that, when the pole team holds
back, a heavy iron on the side of each runner of the forward sled is forced
into the roadbed. (N. F.)
Brand, n. See Mark.
Break out, to. i. To start a sled whose runners are frozen to the ground.
(N. W., L. S.)
2. To open a logging road after heavy snowfall. (N. W., L. S.)
Breastwork log. See Fender skid.
Briar, ;/. A crosscut saw. (Gen.)
Bridle, 11. A device for controlling the speed of logs on a skid road. It
consists of a short rope with two hooks at one end, which are driven into
the first log of the turn; at the other end is a clamp which runs over the
cable. (P. C. F.)
Bridle man. One who follows a turn of logs down the skid road and tends
the " bridle." (P. C. F.)
Broadleaf, a. See Hardwood.
Brow skid. The chief beam in a frame to which tackle for loading logs on
cars is fastened. (P. C. F.)
Syn.: draw skid, lead log.
Brush a road, to. To cover with brush the mudholes and swampy places
in a logging road, to make it solid. (N. F.)
484 APPENDIX
Brush snow fence. A snowbreak to protect a logging road; used most
commonly on wide marshes. It consists of brush which is set upright
in the ground before it freezes. (N. F.)
Brutting crew. A crew which rolls logs down slopes too steep for teams.
(App.)
Buck, V. I. To saw felled trees into logs. (P. C. F.)
2. To bring or carry, as to buck water or wood. (Gen.)
Bucket, 11. I, One who saws felled trees into logs. (P. C. F.)
Syn. : cross cutter.
2. One who brings or carries. See Buck.
Buckwheat, v. See Hang up, to.
Buckwheater, n. A novice at lumbering. (Gen.)
Bull chain, i. A very heavy chain, to which a number of short chains, with
hooks on one end and dogs on the other, are attached. It is used to draw
logs from the miU pond up the gangway. (Gen.)
2. See Jack chain.
Bull cook. See Chore boy.
Bull donkey. A large donkey engine which, by drum and cable, drags logs
from the place where they are yarded to a landing. (P. C. F.)
Bully, II . A common name for the foreman or boss of a logging camp.
(N. F.)
Bummer, ;/. A small truck with two low wheels and a long pole, used in
skidding logs. (N. F., S. F.)
Syn.: drag cart, skidder.
Bunch load, to. To encircle several logs with a chain and load them at once,
by steam or horse power. (N. F.)
Bunch logs, to. To collect logs in one place for loading. (Gen.)
Bunk, I'. To place upon the bunks, as to " bunk a log." (Gen.)
Bunk, n. i. The heavy timber upon which the logs rest on a logging sled.
(N. F.)
Syn.: bolster.
2. The cross beam on a log car or truck, on which the logs rest. (Gen.)
3, A log car or truck. (S. F., P. C. F.)
Bunk chain. See Toggle chain.
Bunk hook. The hook attached to the end of the bunk on a logging car,
which may be raised to hold the logs in place or lowered to release them.
(Gen.)
Bunk load. A load of logs not over one log deep; i.e., in which every log
rests on the bunks. (Gen.)
Bunk spikes. Sharp spikes set upright in the bunks of a logging sled to hold
the logs in place. (N. F.)
Bush a road, to. To mark the route of a logging road across a marsh or the
ice by setting up bushes. (N. F.)
Butt, n. The base of a tree, or the big end of a log. (Gen.)
APPENDIX 485
Butt cut, I. The first log above the stump. (Gen.)
Syn. : butt log. (Gen.) •
2. In gathering tanb&rk, the section of bark taken from the butt of a
tree before felling it for further peeling. (N. F.)
Butt hook. The hook by which the cable is attached to the tackle on the
logs. (P. C. F.)
Butt log. See Butt cut.
Butt off, to. I, To cut a piece from the end of a log on account of a defect,
(Gen.)
Syn.: long butt, to. (P. C. F., App.)
2. To square the end of a log. (N. F.)
Buttress, n. A wall or abutment built along a stream to prevent the logs
in a drive from cutting the bank or jamming. (Gen.)
Butt team. In a logging team of four or more, the pair nearest the load.
(Gen.)
Camp inspector. A lazy lumberjack, who goes from one logging camp to
another, working only a short time in each. (N. F.)
Cannon a log, to. In loading logs by steam or horse power, to send up a log
so that it swings crosswise, instead of parallel to the load. (X. F.)
Cant dog. See Cant hook.
Cant hook, A tool like a peavey, but having a toe ring and lip at the end
instead of a pike. See Peavey. (Gen.)
Syn. : cant dog.
Cap, n. A cone of sheet iron or steel, with a hole in the end through which a
chain passes, which is fitted over the end of a log before snaking it, to
prevent catching on stumps, roots or other obstacles, in steam skidding,
(S. F.)
Catamaran, ;/. A small raft carrying a windlass and grapple, used to re-
cover sunken logs. (Gen.)
Syn.: sinker boat (Gen.), monitor, pontoon (P. C. F.)
Catch boom, A boom fastened across stream to catch and hold floating
logs. (Gen.)
Catface, n. A partly healed over fire scar on the stem of a tree. (P, C, F.)
Catpiece, n. A small stick in which holes are made at regular intervals,
placed on the top of uprights firmly set in floating booms. The uprights
are fitted to enter the holes in the catpiece, so as to narrow or widen the
space between the booms at the entrance to a sluiceway or sorting jack.
The catpiece is held by the uprights high enough above water to allow
logs to float freely under it. (N. W., L. S.)
Cattyman, ;;. An expert river driver. (N. F.)
Center jam. A jam formed on an obstacle in the middle of a stream, and
which does not reach either shore. (Gen.)
Syn.: stream jam.
486 APPENDIX
Chain grapples. See Grapples.
Chain tender. See Sled tender.
Check, n. A longitudinal crack in timber caused by too rapid seasoning.
(Gen.)
Syn.: season check.
Cheese block. See Chock block.
Chock block. A small wedge or block used to prevent a log from rolling.
(Gen.)
Syn.: cheese block. (P. C. F.)
Chokex, //. A noose of wire rope by which a log is dragged. (P. C. F.)
Choker man. The member of a yarding crew who fastens the choker on the
logs. (P. C. F.)
Chopper, n. See Faller.
Chore boy. One who cleans up the sleeping quarters and stable in a logging
camp, cuts firewood, builds fires and carries water. (Gen.)
Syn.: bull cook, flunkey, shanty boss.
Chunk, V. To clear the ground, with engine or horses, of obstructions which
cannot be removed by hand. (P. C. F.)
Chunk up, to. To collect and pile for burning the slash left after logging.
(N. W., L. S.)
Churn butted. See Swell butted.
Chute, n. See Slide.
Coal off, to. To cut a forest clean for charcoal wood. (N. F.)
Conunissary, n. A general store for supplying lumbermen. (App., S. F.)
See Van.
Conk, n. i. The decay in the wood of trees caused by a fungus. (N. F.,
P. C. F.)
2. The visible fruiting organ of a tree fungus. (N. F., P. C. F.)
Conky, a. Affected by conk. (N. F., P. C. F.)
Cook camp. The building used as kitchen and dining room in a logging
camp. (Gen.)
S>Ti. : cook house, cook shanty.
Cookee, n. Assistant cook and dishwasher in a logging camp. (Gen.)
Cook house. See Cook camp.
Cook shanty. See Cook camp.
Corkscrew, n. A geared logging locomotive. (P. C. F.)
S\Ti.: stem-winder. (App.)
Comer binds. Four stout chains, used on logging sleds, to bind the two
outside logs of the lower tier to the bunks, and thus give a firm bottom to
the load. (N. F.)
Comer man. In building a camp or barn of logs, one who notches the logs
so that they will fit closely and make a square corner. (N. F.)
Coupling grab. See Grapples.
APPENDIX 487
Crab, n. A small raft bearing a windlass and anchor, used to move log
rafts upstream or across a lake. (N. F., S. F.)
Cradle, n. A framework of timbers in which ocean-going rafts of logs are
built. (P. C. F.)
Cradle knolls. Small knolls which require grading in the construction of
logging roads. (N. W., L. S.)
Crazy chain. The short chain used to hold up that tongue of a sprinkler
sled which is not in use. (N. F.)
Crib, n. Specifically, a raft of logs; loosely appUed to a boom of logs.
(N. F.)
Crib logs, to. To surround floating logs with a boom and draw them by a
windlass on a raft (a crab), or to tow them with a steamboat. (N. W.,
L. S.)
Cross chains. Chains connecting the front and rear sleds of a logging sled.
(N. F.)
Cross cutter. See Bucker.
Cross haul. The cleared space in which a team moves in cross hauling.
(N. F.)
Cross haul, to. To load cars or sleds with logs by horse power and crotch
or loading chain. (Gen.)
Crotch, V. To cut notches on opposite sides of a log near the end, into which
dogs are fastened. (P. C. F.)
Crotch, n. See Dray.
Crotch chain. A tackle for loading logs on sleds, cars or skidways by cross
hauling. (Gen.)
Crotch tongue. Two pieces of wood, in the form of a V, joining the front
and rear sleds of a logging sled. (N. W., L. S.)
Cruise, v. To estimate the amount and value of standing timber. (Gen.)
Syn.: estimate, value.
Cruiser, n. One who cruises. (Gen.)
Syn.: estimator, land looker, valuer.
Cull, «. Logs which are rejected, or parts of logs deducted in measurement
on account of defects. (Gen.)
Cut, n. A season's output of logs. (Gen.)
Cut a log, to. To move one end of a log forward or backward, so that the
log win roll in the desired direction. (Gen.)
Cut-off. An artificial channel by which the course of a stream is straightened
to facihtate log driving. (N. F.)
Deacon seat. The bench in front of the sleeping bunks in a logging camp.
(N. F.)
Deadener, n. A heavy log or timber, with spikes set in the butt end, so
fastened in a log slide that the logs passing under it come in contact with,
the spikes and have their speed retarded. (Gen.)
488 APPENDIX
Deadhead, n. A sunken or partly sunken log. (Gen.)
Syn.: sinker (Gen.), bobber (N. F.).
Deadman, ;/. A fallen tree on the shore, or a timber to which the hawser of
a boom is attached. (N. F., P. C. F.)
Deadwater. See Stillwater.
Decker, ;/. One who rolls logs upon a skidway or log deck. (Gen.)
Decking chain. See Loading chain.
Deck up, to. To pile logs upon a skidway. (Gen.)
Deer foot. A V-shaped iron catch on the side of a logging car, in which the
binding chain is fastened. (Gen.)
Dehorn, v. To saw off the ends of logs bearing the owner's mark and put
on a new mark. (Kentucky.)
Dingle, n. The roofed-over space between the kitchen and the sleeping
quarters in a logging camp, commonly used as a storeroom. (N. W., L. S.)
Dinkey, u. A small logging locomotive. (App., S. F.)
Dog, }i. A short, heavy piece of steel, bent and pointed at one end and with
an eye or ring at the other. It is used for many purposes in logging, and
is sometimes so shaped that a blow^ directly against the line of draft wall
loosen it. (Gen.)
Syn.: tail hook. (P. C. F.)
Dog boat. See Rigging sled.
Dogger, ;/. One who attaches the dogs or hooks to a log before it is steam
skidded. (S. F., P. C. F.)
Dog hook. I. The strong hook on the end of a dogwarp. (N. F.)
2. A hook on the end of a haul-up chain of a size to permit its being
hooked into a link of the chain when the latter is looped around a log or
other object. (P. C. F.)
Dogs, II. See Skidding tongs.
Dogwarp, n. A rope with a strong hook on the end, which is used in break-
ing dangerous jams on falls and rapids and in moving logs from other
difficult positions. (X. F.)
Dog wedge. An iron wedge with a ring in the butt, which is driven into the
end of a log and a chain hitched in the ring for skidding the log by horse
power; also used in gathering up logs on a drive by running a rope through
the rings and pulling a number of logs at a time through marshes or
partially submerged meadows to the channel. (N. F.)
Dolly, II. See Upright roller.
Dolphin, «. A cluster of piles to which a boom is secured. (P. C. F.)
Donkey, ii. A portable steam engine, equipped with drum and cable, used
in steam logging. See Road donkey; Yarding donkey; BuU donkey;
Spool donkey. (P. C. F.)
Donkey sled. The heavy sled-hke frame upon which a donkey engine is
fastened. (P. C. F.)
Dote, II. The general term used by lumbermen to denote decay or rot in
timber. (Gen.)
APPENDIX ^ 489
Doty, (7. Decayed. (Gen.)
Syn.: dozy.
Double couplers. Two coupling grabs joined by a short cable, used for
fastening logs together. (P. C. F.)
Syn. : four paws.
Double header. A place from which it is possible to haul a full load of logs
to the landing, and where partial loads are topped out or finished to the
full hauling capacity of teams. (N. W., L. S.)
Down-hill clevis. A brake on a logging sled, consisting of a clevis encircling
the runner, to the bottom of which a heavy square piece of iron is welded.
(N. F.)
Dozy, a. See Doty.
Drag cart. See Bummer.
Drag in, to. See Dray in, to.
Drag road. See Dray road; Gutter road.
Drag sled. See Dray.
Draw hook. See Gooseneck.
Draw skid. See Brow skid.
Dray, n. A single sled used in dragging logs. One end of the log rests upon
the sled. (N. F.)
Syn.: bob, crotch, drag sled, go-devil, lizard, scoot, skidding sled,
sloop, travois.
Dray in, to. To drag logs from the place where they are cut directly to the
skidway or landing. (N. F.)
Syn.: drag in, to.
Dray road. A narrow road, cut wide enough to allow the passage of a team
and dray. (N. F.)
Syn.: drag road.
Drive, v. To float logs or timbers from the forest to the mill or shipping
point. (Gen.)
Syn.: float.
Drive, n. 1. A body of logs or timbers in process of being floated from the
forest to the mill or shipping point. (Gen.)
2. That part of logging which consists in floating logs or timbers^
(Gen.)
Drum logs, to. To haul logs by drum and cable out of a hollow or cove.
(App.)
Dry-ki, 11. Trees kflled by flooding. (N. F.)
Dry pick, to. As applied to a jam, to remove logs singly w'hile the water is
cut off. (N. F.)
Dry roll, to. In sacking the rear, to roll stranded logs into the bed of the
stream from which the water has been cut oft" preparatory to flooding.
(N. F.)
Dry rot. Decay in timber without apparent moisture. (Gen.)
Dry slide. See Slide.
490 APPENDIX
Dry sloop, to. To sloop logs on bare ground when the slope is so steep that
it would be dangerous to sloop on snow. (N. F.)
Dudler, n. See Dudley.
Dudley, n. An engine for hauling logs, which propels itself and drags its
load by revolving a large spool around which are several turns of a cable
fixed at each end of the track. (P. C. F.)
Syn.: dudler.
Duffle, ;/. The personal belongings of a woodsman or lumberjack which he
takes into the woods. (Gen.)
Syn.: dunnage. (N. W.)
Dump hook. A levered chain grab hook attached to the evener to which a
team is hitched in loading logs. A movement of the lever releases the
hook from the logging chain without stopping the team. (N. F.)
Dump logs, to. To roll logs over a bluff, or from a logging car or sled into
the water. (Gen.)
Dunnage, n. Sec DulHe.
Dust a dam, to. To fill up with earth or gravel the cracks or small holes
between planks in the gate of a splash dam. (N. W.)
Dutchman, n. A short stick placed transversely between the outer logs of
a load to divert the load toward the middle and so keep any logs from
falling off. (N. F.)
End mark. See Mark.
Estimate, v. See Cruise.
Estimator, ;;. See Cruiser.
Face log. See Head log.
Faller, ii. One who fells trees. (Gen.) Sec Head faller; Second faller.
Syn.: sawyer (Gen.), chopper (App.).
Falling ax. An ax with a long helve and a long, narrow bit, designed especi-
ally for felling trees. (Gen.)
Falling wedge. A wedge used to throw a tree in the desired direction, by
driving it into the saw kerf. (Gen.)
Feeder, //. See Barn boss.
Fender boom. See Sheer boom.
Fender skid. A skid placed on the lower side of a skidding trail on a slope
to hold the log on the trail while being skidded. (Gen.)
Syn.: breastwork log, glancer, sheer skid.
Fid hook. A slender, flat hook used to keep another hook from slipping on a
chain. (N. W., L. S.)
Filer, n. One who files the crosscut saws in the woods. (Gen.)
Syn.: saw fitter.
Fitter, n. i. One who notches the tree for felling and after it is felled marks-
the log lengths into which it is to be cut. (N. F.)
APPENDIX 491
2. One who cuts limbs from felled trees and rings and slits the bark
preparatory to peeling tanbark. (N. F.)
Ploat, V. See Drive.
Float road. A channel cleared in a swamp and used to float cypress logs
from the woods to the boom at the river or mill. (S. F.)
Flood, V. See Splash.
Flood dam. See Splash dam.
Flume, V. To transport logs or timbers by a flume. (Gen.)
Syn.: sluice.
Flume, n. An inclined trough in which water runs, used in transporting
logs or timbers. (Gen.)
Syn. : sluice, water slide, wet slide.
Flunkey, n. i. An assistant, usually either to the engineer of a donkey
engine or to the cook in a logging camp. (P. C. F.)
2. See Chore boy.
Flying drive. A drive the main portion of which is put through with the
utmost dispatch, without stopping to pick rear. (N. F.)
Fly roUway. A skidway or landing on a steep slope, from which the logs are
released at once by removing the brace which holds them. (N. F.)
Fore-and-aft road. A skid road made of logs placed parallel to its direction,
making the road resemble a chute. (P. C. F.)
Syn. : stringer road.
Four paws. See Double couplers.
Frog, n. I. The junction of two branches of a flume. (P. C. F.)
2. A timber placed at the mouth of a slide to direct the discharge of the
logs. (Gen.) Syn. : throw out.
Full scale. Measurement of logs, in which no reduction is made for defects.
(Gen.)
Syn.: bigness scale. (N. F.)
Gangway, n. The incline plane up which logs are moved from the water
into a sawmill. (Gen.)
Syn. : jack ladder, log jack, log way, slip.
Gap stick. The pole placed across the entrance of a sorting jack to close it,
when not in use. (Gen.)
,Gee throw. A heavy, wooden lever, with a curved iron point, used to break
out logging sleds. (N. F.)
Syn.: starting bar.
Gin pole. A pole secured by guy ropes, to the top of which tackle for loading
logs is fastened. (Gen.)
Glancer, n. See Fender skid.
Glancing boom. See Sheer boom.
Glisse skids. Freshly peeled skids up which logs are slid instead of rolled
when being loaded. (N. F.)
Syn. : sUp skids. .
492 APPENDIX
Go-back road. A road upon which unloaded logging sleds can return to the
skidways for reloading, without meeting the loaded sleds en route to the
landing. (N. F.)
Syn.: short road.
Go-devil. See Dray.
Gooseneck, //. i. A wooden bar used to couple two logging trucks.
(Gen.)
Syn. : rooster. (P. C. F.)
2. The point of draft on a logging sled; it consists of a curved iron hook
bolted to the roll. (N. F.)
Syn.: draw hook.
3. A curved iron driven into the bottom of a sUde to check the speed of
descending logs. (App.)
Goosepen. A large hole burned in a standing tree. (P. C. F.)
Grab hook. A hook having a narrow throat, adapted to grasp any link of
a chain. (Gen.)
Grab link. See Slip grab.
Grabs, n. See Skidding tongs.
Grab skipper. A short iron pry or hammer, used to remove the skidding
tongs from a log. (App., S. F.)
Grapples, ;/. i. Two small iron dogs joined by a short chain, and used to
couple logs end to end when skidding on mountains, so that several logs
may be skidded by one horse at the same time. (N. F.)
Syn.: chain grapples, coupling grab. (P. C. F.)
2. See Skidding tongs.
Gravel a dam, to. To cover with gravel or earth the upstream side of the
timber work of a dam, to make it water tight. (N. F.)
Greaser, n. See Road monkey.
Grips, II. See Skidding tongs.
Ground loader. See Send-up man.
Grouser, n. A large and long stick of squared timber sharpened at the lower
end and placed in the bow of a steam logging boat; it takes the place of
an anchor in shallow water, and can be raised or lowered by steam power.
(N. W., L. S.)
Guard a hill, to. To keep a logging road on a steep decline in condition for
use. (N. F.)
Gun, V. To aim a tree in felling it. In the case of very large, brittle trees,
such as redwood, a sighting device (gunning stick) is used. (P. C. F.)
Syn.: point, swing. (Gen.)
Gunning stick. See Gun.
Gutterman. See Swamper.
Gutter road. The- path followed in skidding logs. (Gen.)
Syn.: drag road, runway, skidding trail, snaking trail.
APPENDIX 493
Handbarrow. Two strong, light poles held in position by rungs, upon which
bark or wood is carried by two men. (N. W., L. S.)
Syn. : ranking bar.
Hand pike. A piked lever, usually from 6 to 8 feet long, for handling
floating logs. (Gen.)
Hand skidder. One who accompanies a log as it is being dragged and places
short skids beneath it. (P. C. F.)
Hang the boom, to. To put the boom in place. (Gen.)
Hang up, to. i. To fell a tree so that it catches against another instead of
faUing to the ground. (Gen.)
Syn.: lodge (Gen.), buckwheat (App.)
2. As applied to river driving, to discontinue; thus a drive may be
" hung up " for lack of water or for some other reason.
Hardwood, a. As applied to trees and logs, broadleafed, belonging to the
dicotyledons. (Gen.)
Syn.: broadleaf.
Hardwood, n. A broadleafed, or dicotyledonous, tree. (Gen.)
Haul, II. In logging, the distance and route over which teams must go
between two given points, as between the yard or skidway and the land-
ing. (Gen.)
Haul back. A small wire rope, traveling between the donkey engine and a
pulley set near the logs to be dragged, used to return the cable. (P. C. F.)
Syn. : back line, pull back, trip line.
Haul up. A light chain and hook by which a horse may be hitched to a
cable in order to move it where desired. (P. C. F.)
Hay road. See Tote road.
Hay wire outfit. A contemptuous term for loggers with poor logging equip-
ment. (N. F.)
Head block. The log placed under the front end of the skids in a skidway
to raise them to the desired height. (N. F.)
Head driver. An expert river driver who, during the drive, is stationed at
a point where a jam is feared. Head drivers usually work in pairs. (N. F.)
Syn.: log watch (N. F.), jam cracker (P. C. F.)
Head faller. The chief of a crew of fallers. (P. C. F.)
Head log. i. The front bottom log on a skidway. (N. F.)
Syn. : face log.
2. The front log in a turn. (P. C. F.)
Syn. : lead log.
Head push. See Straw boss.
Headquarters, n. In logging, the distributing point for supplies, equip-
ment and mail; not usually the executive or administrative center.
(Gen.)
Head tree. In steam skidding, the tree to which the cable upon which the
traveler runs is attached. (S. F.)
494 APPENDIX
Headworks, n. A platform or raft, with windlass or capstan, which is
attached to the front of a log raft or boom of logs, for warping, kedging
or winding it through lakes and still water, by hand or horse power.
(N. W., L. S.)
Helper, n. See Second faller.
Hoist, ;/. See Loading tripod.
Holding boom. See Storage boom.
Hook tender. The foreman of a yarding crew; specifically, one who directs
the attaching of the cable to a turn of logs. (P. C. F.)
Horse dam. A temporary dam made by placing large logs across a stream,
in order to raise the water behind it, so as to float the rear. (N. F.)
Horse logs, to. In river driving, to drag stranded logs back to the stream
by the use of peaveys. (N. F.)
Hovel, 11. A stable for logging teams. (N. W., L. S.)
Ice a road, to. To sprinkle water on a logging road so that a coating of ice
may form, thus facilitating the hauling of logs. (N. F.)
Ice guards. Heavy timbers fastened fan shaped about a cluster of boom
piles at an angle of approximately 30 degrees to the surface of the water.
They prevent the destruction of the boom by ice, through forcing it to
mount the guards and be broken up. (N. F.)
Jack chain. An endless spiked chain, which moves logs from one point to
another, usually from the mill pond into the sawmill. (Gen.)
Syn. : bull chain. (P. C. F.)
Jack ladder. See Gangway.
Jackpot, >i. I, A contemptuous expression applied to an unskilful piece of
work in logging. (N. F.)
2. An irregular pile of logs. (App.)
Jam, n. A stoppage or congestion of logs in a stream, due to an obstruction
or to low water. (Gen.)
Jam cracker. See Head driver.
Jammer, u. An improved form of gin, mounted on a movable framework,
and used to load logs on sleds and cars by horse power. (N. F.)
Jam, to break a. To start in motion logs which have jammed. (Gen.)
Jay hawk, to. To strip one 4-foot length of bark from a tanbark oak,
leaving the tree standing. (P. C. F.)
Jiboo, V. To remove a dog from a log. (N. W., L. S.)
Jigger, V. To pull a log by horse power over a level place in a shde. (Gen.)
Syn.: lazy haul, to.
Jim binder. Sec Binder.
Jobber, n. A logging contractor or subcontractor. (Gen.)
Jobber's sun. A term applied to the moon in a jobber's or contractor's
logging camp, on account of the early and late hours of commencing and
ending work. (N. W., L. S.)
APPENDIX 495
Jumper, n. A sled shod with wood, used for hauling supplies over bare
ground into a logging camp. (N. F.)
Syn. : tote sled.
Katydid, //. Sec Logging wheels.
Key log. In river driving, a log which is so caught or wedged that a jam
is formed and held. (Gen.)
Kilhig, n. A short, stout pole used as a lever or brace to direct the fall of
a tree. (N. W.)
Knot, V. See Limb.
Knot bumper. See Limber.
Knotter, n. See Limber.
Laker, n. A log driver expert at handling logs on lakes. (N. F.)
Landing, n. i. A place to which logs are hauled or skidded preparatory to
transportation by water or rail. A rough and tumble landing is one in
which no attempt is made to pile the logs regularly. (Gen.)
Syn. : bank, banking ground, log dump, roUway, yard.
2. A platform, usually at the foot of a skid road, where logs are col-
lected and loaded on cars. A lightning landing is one having such an
incline that the logs may roll upon the cars without assistance. (Gen.)
Landing man. One who unloads logging sleds at the landing. (N. F.)
Landing, to break a. To roll a pile of logs from a landing or bank into the
water. (Gen.)
Land looker. See Cruiser.
Lap, «., or Lapwood, ;/. Tops left in the woods in logging. (Gen.)
Lash pole. A cross pole which holds logs together in a raft. (Gen.)
Lazy haul, to. See Jigger.
Lead, n. A snatch block with a hook or loop for fastening it to convenient
stationary objects, used for guiding the cable by which logs are dragged.
(P. C. F.)
Lead line. A wire rope, with an eye at each end, used to anchor the snatch
block in setting a lead. (P. C. F.)
Lead log. 5cc Brow skid; Head log.
Lightning landing. See Landing.
Limb, V. To remove the hmbs from a feUed tree.
Syn.: knot. (P. C. F.)
Limber, n. One who cuts the limbs from felled trees. (Gen.)
Syn.: knotter (P. C. F.), knot bumper (App.).
Line horse. The horse which drags the cable from the yarding engine to the
log to which the cable is to be attached. (P. C. F.)
Lizard, n. See Dray.
Loader, n. i. One who loads logs on sleds or cars. (Gen.)
2. See Steam loader.
496 APPENDIX
Loading chain. A long chain used in loading or piling logs with horses.
(X. F.)
Syn. : decking chain.
Loading jack. A platformed framework upon which logs are hoisted from
the water for loading upon cars. (X. F.)
Loading tripod. Three long timbers joined at their tops in the shape of a
tripod, for holding a pulley block in proper position to load logs on cars
from a lake or stream. (L. S.)
Syn.: hoist.
Lock down. A strip of tough wood, with holes in the ends, which is laid
across a raft of logs. Rafting pins are driven through the holes into the
logs, thus holding the raft together. (X. F.)
Lodge, to. Sec Hang up, to.
Logan, //. See Pokelogan.
Log deck. The platform upon a loading jack. (Gen.)
Log dump. Sec Landing.
Log fixer. See Rosser.
Logger, ;/. One engaged in logging.
Logging sled. The heavy double sled used to haul logs from the skidway or
yard to the landing. (X. F.)
Syn.: twin sleds, two sleds, wagon sled.
Logging-sled road. A road, leading from the skidway to the landing.
(X. F.)
Logging wheels. A pair of wheels, usually about 10 feet in diameter, for
transporting logs. (Gen.)
Syn. : big wheels, katydid, timber wheels.
Log jack. See Gangway.
Log scale. The contents of a log, or of a number of logs considered collec-
tively. (Gen.)
Log, to. To cut logs and deliver them at a place from which they can be
transported by water or rail, or, less frequently, at the mill. (Gen.)
Log watch. See Head driver.
Logway, n. See Gangway.
Long butt, to. See Butt off, to.
Loose-tongued sloop. Sec Swing dingle.
Lubber lift, to. To raise the end of a log by means of a pry, and through the
use of weight instead of strength. (X. F.)
Lug hooks. A pair of tongs attached to the middle of a short bar, and used
by two men to carry small logs. (Gen.)
Lumber, v. To log, or to manufacture logs into lumber, or both. (Gen.)
Lumberjack, ;/. One who works in a logging camp. (Gen.)
Lumberman, 11. One engaged in lumbering. (Gen.)
Mark, n. A letter or sign indicating ownership, which is stamped on the
ends of logs. (Gen.) See Bark mark.
Syn. : brand, end mark.
APPENDIX 497
Mark caller. In sorting logs, one who stands at the lower end of the sorting
jack and calls the different marks, so that the logs may be guided into the
proper channels or pockets. (Gen.)
Marker,;?. One who puts the mark on the ends of logs. (Gen.)
Market, n. A log 19 inches in diameter at the small end and 13 feet long.
(New York.)
Syn.: standard.
Marking hammer. A hammer bearing a raised device, which is stamped on
logs, to indicate ownership. (Gen.)
Syn. : marking iron.
Marking iron. See JNIarking hammer.
Match, V. See Mate.
Mate, V. To place together in a raft logs of similar size. (Gen.)
Syn.: match.
Mill pond. The pond near a sa\\Taill in which logs to be sawn are held.
(Gen.)
Monitor. See Catamaran.
Moss, V. To fill with moss the crevices between the logs in a logging camp.
(X. F.)
Mud, V. To fill with soft clay the crevices between the logs in a logging
camp. (N. F.)
Mudboat, n. A low sled with wide runners, used for hauling logs in swamps.
(S. F., N. F.)
Mudsill, n. The bed piece or bottom timber of a dam which is placed across
the stream, usually resting on rocks or in mud. (Gen.)
Syn.: bottom sill.
Nick, 11. See Undercut.
Nose, V. To round off the end of a log in order to make it drag or shp more
easil3^ (Gen.)
Syn. : snipe.
Notch, V. To make an undercut in a tree preparatory to felling it. (Gen.)
Syn.: undercut.
Notch, n. See Undercut.
Peaker, n. 1. A load of logs narrowing sharply toward the top, and thus
shaped Hke an inverted \'. (Gen.)
2. The top log of a load. (Gen.)
Peavey, n. A stout lever, from 5 to 7 feet long, fitted at the larger end with
a metal socket and pike and a curved steel hook which works on a bolt;
used in handling logs, especially in driving. A peavej' differs from a cant
hook in having a pike instead of a toe ring and lip at the end. (Gen.)
Pecky, a. A term applied to an unsoundness most common in bald cypress.
(S. F.)
Syn. : peggy.
498 APPENDIX
Peeler, n. See Barker.
Peggy, a. See Pecky.
Pickaroon, a. A piked pole fitted with a curved hook, used in holding boats
to jams in driving, and for pulling logs from brush and eddies out into the
current. (Gen.)
Pick the rear, to. See Sack the rear, to.
Pier dam. A pier built from the shore, usually slanting downstream, to
narrow and deepen the channel, to guide logs past an obstruction, or to
throw all the water on one side of an island. (X. F.)
Syn.: wing dam.
Pig, )!. See Rigging sled.
Pig tail. An iron device driven into trees or stumps to support a wire or
small rope. (P. C. F.)
Pike pole. A piked pole, from 12 to 20 feet long, used in river driving.
(Gen.)
Pitch pocket. A cavity in wood filled with resin. (P. C. F., R. M. F., S. F.)
Pitch streak. A seam or shake filled with resin. (Gen.)
Plug and knock down. A device for fastening boom sticks together, in the
absence of chains. It consists of a withe secured by wooden plugs in
holes bored in the booms. (X. F.)
Pocket boom. A boom in which logs are held after they are sorted. (Gen.)
Point, t'. See Gun.
Pokelogan, 11. A bay or pocket into which logs may float off during a drive.
(X. W., L. S.)
Syn.: logan.
Pond man. One who collects logs in the mill pond and floats them to the
gang^vay. (Gen.)
Pontoon. See Catamaran.
Prize logs. Logs which come to the sorting jack without marks denoting
ownership. (X. F.)
Pull back. See Haul back.
Pullboat. A flatboat, carrying a steam skidder or a donkey, used in logging
cypress. (S. F.)
Pull the briar, to. To use a crosscut saw. (X. F.)
Put in, to. In logging, to dehver logs at the landing. (Gen.)
Quickwater, ti. That part of a stream which has faU enough to create a
decided current. (Gen.)
Ant.: Stillwater.
Rafter dam. A dam in which long timbers are set on the upstream side at
an angle of from 20 to 40 degrees to the water surface. The pressure
of the water against the timbers holds the dam solidly against the
stream bed. (X. F.)
Syn. : self-loading dam, slant dam.
APPENDIX 499
Ram pike. A tree broken oflf by wind and with a splintered end on the
portion left standing. (X. F.)
Rank, ;'. To haul and pile regularly, as, to rank bark or cord wood. (Gen.)
Ranking bar. Sec Handbarrow.
Ranking jumper. A wopd-shod sled upon which tanbark is hauled. (N. F.)
Rave, n. A piece of iron or wood which secures the beam to the runners of
a logging sled. (N. W., L. S.)
Rear, n. The upstream end of a drive; the logs may be either stranded or
floating. " Floating rear " comprises those logs which may be floated
back into the current; " dry rear," those which must be dragged or rolled
back. (Gen.)
Receiving boom. See Storage boom.
Ride, n. The side of a log upon which it rests when being dragged.
(Gen.)
Ride a log, to. To stand on a floating log. (Gen.)
Rigging, n. The cables, blocks and hooks used in skidding logs by steam
power. (Gen.)
Rigging sled. A sled used to haul hooks and blocks on a skid road.
(P. C. F.)
Syn.: dog boat, pig.
Rigging slinger. i. A member of a yarding crew, whose chief duty is to
place chokers or grabs on logs. (P. C. F.)
2. One who attaches the rigging to trees, in steam skidding. (S. F.)
Ring, n. A section of tanbark, usually 4 feet long. (N. F.)
Ring rot. Decay in a log, which follows the annual rings more or less
closely. (Gen.)
Rise, 11. The difi^erence in diameter, or taper, between two points in a log.
(Gen.)
River boss. The foreman in charge of a log drive. (X. F.)
River driver. One who works on a log drive. (Gen.)
River rat. A log driver whose work is chiefly on the river; contrasted with
Laker. (X. F.)
Road donkey. A donkey engine mounted on a heavy sled, which drags logs
along a skid road by winding a cable on a drum. It has a second drum for
the haul back. (P. C. F.)
Road gang. That portion of the crew of a logging camp who cut out logging
roads and keep them in repair. (X. F.)
Road monkey. One whose duty is to keep a logging road in proper condi-
tion. (X. W., L. S.)
Syn.: blue jay, greaser. (P. C. F.)
Roll, H. The crossbar of a logging sled into which the tongue is set. (N. W.,
L. S.)
Syn.: roller.
Roller, n. See Roll; Upright roller.
500 APPENDIX
Rolling dam. A dam for raising the water in a shallow stream. It has no
sluiceways, but a smooth top of timber over which, under a sufficient head
of water, logs may slide or roll. (Gen.)
RoU the boom, to. To roll a boom of logs along the shore of a lake against
which it is held by wind, by the use of a cable operated by a steamboat or
kedge. The cable is attached to the outer side of the boom, hauled up,
then attached again, thus propelling the boom by revolving it against
the shore when it would be impossible to tow it. (X. W., L. S.)
RoUway, n. See Landing.
Rooster, n. See Gooseneck.
Rosser, ;/. One who barks and smooths the ride of a log in order that it may
slide more easily. (N. F.)
Syn.: log fixer (P. C. F.), slipper, scalper (App.).
Rough and tumble landing. See Landing.
Round timber. Pine trees which have not been turpentined. (S. F.)
Round turn. A space at the head of a logging-sled road, in which the sled
may be turned round without unhitching the team. (N. F.)
Runner chain. A chain bound loosely around the forward end of the run-
ners of a logging sled as a brake. (N. W., L. S.)
Runner dog. A curved iron attached to a runner of the hind sled of a
logging sled, which holds the loaded sled on steep hills by being forced
into the bed of the road by any backward movement. (N. F.)
Runway. See Gutter road.
Rutter, n. A form of plow for cutting ruts in a logging road for the runners
of the sleds to run in. (N. W., L. S.)
Sack the rear, to. To follow a drive and roll in logs which have lodged or
grounded. (Gen.)
Syn.: pick the rear, to.
Sack the slide, to. To return to a slide logs which have jumped out. (Gen.)
Saddle, ii. The depression cut in a transverse skid in a skid road to guide
the logs which pass over it. (P. C. F.)
Saddlebag, v. As applied to a boom, to catch on an obstruction and double
around it. (Gen.)
Sampson, ». An appliance for loosening or startmg logs by horse power.
It usually consists of a strong, heavy timber and a chain terminating in a
heavy swamp hook. The timber is placed upright beside the piece to be
moved, the chain fastened around it, and the hook inserted low down on
the opposite side. Leverage is then applied by a team hitched to the
upper end of the upright timber. (X. F.)
Sampson a tree, to. To direct the fall of a tree by means of a lever and pole.
(N. F.)
Sap stain. Discoloration of the sapwood. (Gen.)
Saw fitter. See Filer.
APPENDIX 501
Sawyer, n. See Faller.
Scale book. A book especially designed for recording the contents of scaled
logs. (Gen.)
Scaler, n. One who determines the volume of logs. (Gen.)
Scalper, u. See Rosser.
Scoot, H. See Dray.
Season check. See Check.
Second faller. The subordinate in a crew of fallers. (P. C. F.)
Syn.: helper. (N. F.)
Self-loading dam. See Rafter dam.
Send-up man. That member of a loading crew who guides the logs up the
skids. (Gen.)
Syn. : ground loader. (N. F.)
Send up, to. In loading, to raise logs up skids with cant hooks, or by steam
or horse power. (Gen.)
Setting, n. The temporary station of a portable sawmill, a yarding engine,
or other machine used in logging. (Gen.)
Shake, 11. A crack in timber, due to frost or wind. (Gen.)
Syn. : windshake.
Shanty boat. See Wanigan.
Shanty boss. See Chore boy.
Sheer boom. A boom so secured that it guides iloating logs in the desired
direction. (N. F.)
Syn. : fender boom, glancing boom.
Sheer skid. See Fender skid.
Shoot a jam, to. To loosen a log jam with dynamite. (Gen.)
Shore hold. The attachment of the hawser of a raft of logs to an object on
the shore. (N. W., L. S.)
Short road. See Go-back road.
Shot holes. Holes made in wood by boring insects. (App.)
Side jam. A jam which has formed on one side of a stream, usually where
the logs are forced to the shore at a bend by the current, or where the
water is shallow or there are partially submerged rocks. (N. F.)
Side mark. See Bark mark.
Side winder. A tree knocked down unexpectedly by the falling of another.
(Gen.)
Signal man. One who transmits orders from the foreman of a yarding crew
to the engineer of the yarding donkey. (P. C. F.)
Single out, to. To float logs, usually cypress, one at a time, from the woods
to the float road. (S. F.)
Sinker, n. See Deadhead.
Sinker boat. Sec Catamaran.
Skid, V. I. To draw logs from the stump to the skidway, landing or miU.
(Gen.)
Syn.: snake, twitch.
502 APPENDIX
2. As applied to a road, to reinforce by placing logs or poles across it.
(Gen.)
Skid, //. A log or pole, commonly used in pairs, upon which logs are
handled or piled (Gen.); or the log or pole laid transversely in a skid
road (P. C. F.).
Skidder, n. i. One who skids logs. (Gen.)
2. A steam engine, usually operating from a railroad track, which skids
logs by means of a cable. (Gen.)
Syn.: steam skidder.
3. The foreman of a crew which constructs skid roads. (P. C. F.)
4. Sec Bummer.
Skidding chain, A heavy chain used in skidding logs. (Gen.)
Skidding hooks. See Skidding tongs.
Skidding sled. See Dray.
Skidding tongs. A pair of hooks attached by links to a ring and used for
skidding logs. (Gen.)
Syn.: grips, grapples, grabs, skidding hooks.
Skidding trail. See Gutter road.
Skid grease. A heavy oil appUed to skids to lessen the friction of logs
dragged over them. (P. C. F.)
Skid road. i. A road or trail leading from the stump to the skidway or
landing. (Gen.)
Syn. : travois road. (X. F.)
2. A road over which logs are dragged, having heavy transverse skids
partially sunk in the ground, usually at intervals of about 5 feet.
(P.C.F.)
Skid up, to. I. To level or reinforce a logging road by the use of skids.
(Gen.)
2. To collect logs and pile them on a skidway. (Gen.)
Skidway, n. Two skids laid parallel at right angles to a road, usually raised
above the ground at the end nearest the road. Logs are usually piled
upon a skidway as they are brought from the stump for loachng upon
sleds, wagons or cars. (Gen.)
Skidway, to break a. To roU pQed logs off a skidway. (Gen.)
Sky hooker. See Top loader.
Slack water. In river driving, the temporary slackening of the current
caused by the formation of a jam. (Gen.)
Slant dam. See Rafter dam.
Slash,;;, i. The debris left after logging, wind or fire. (Gen.)
Syn.: slashing.
2. Forest land which has been logged off and upon which the limbs and
tops remain, or which is deep in debris as the result of fire or wind.
(Gen.)
Slashing, n. See Slash.
APPENDIX 503
Sled tender, i. One who assists in loading and unloading logs or skidding
with dray. (N. F.)
Syn.: chain tender.
2. A member of the hauling crew who accompanies the turn of logs to
the landing, unhooks the grabs, and sees that they are returned to the
yarding engine. (P. C. F.)
Slide, n. A trough built of logs or timber, used to transport logs down a
slope. (Gen.)
Syn.: chute, dry slide, slip.
Slide tender. One who keeps a sUde in repair. (Gen.)
Slip, n. I. See Slide.
2. See Gangway.
Slip grab. A pear-shaped link attached by a swivel to a skidding evener or
whiffletree, through which the skidding chain is passed. The chain runs
freely when the slip grab is held sideways, but catches when the grab is
straight. (N. F.)
Syn.: grab link.
Slipper, n. See Rosser.
Slip skids. See Glisse skids.
Sloop, n. See Dray.
Sloop logs, to. To haul logs down steep slopes on a dray or sloop equipped
with a tongue. (N. F.)
Slough pig. Usually a second-rate river driver who is assigned to picking
logs out of sloughs in advance of the rear. (N. F.)
Sluice, V. I. See Flume.
2. To float logs through the sluiceway of a splash dam. (N. F.)
3. See Splash.
Sluice, ;/. See Flume.
Sluice gate. The gate closing a sluiceway in a splash dam. (Gen.)
Sluiceway, n. The opening in a splash dam through which logs pass.
(Gen.)
Snake, v. See Skid.
Snaking trail. See Gutter road.
Snatch team. See Tow team.
Snib, V. In river driving, to be carried away purposely, but ostensibly by
accident, on the first portion of a jam that moves; to ride away from work
under guise of being accidently carried off. (N. W., L. S.)
Snipe, V. See Nose.
Sniper, n. One who noses logs before they are skidded. (Gen.)
Snow a road, to. To cover bare spots in a logging road with snow to
facilitate the passage of sleds. (N. F.)
Snow slide. A temporary slide on a steep slope, made by dragging a large
log through deep snow which is soft or thawing; when frozen solidly, it
may be used to slide logs to a point where they can be reached by sleds.
(N. W.)
504 .APPENDIX
Snub, V. To check, usually by means of a snub line, the speed of logging
sleds or logs on steep slopes, or of a log raft. (Gen.)
Softwood, a. As apphed to trees and logs, needle-leafed, coniferous. (Gen.)
Softwood, n. A needle-leafed, or coniferous, tree. (Gen.)
Solid jam. i. In river driving, a jam foiTned solidly and extending from
bank to bank of a stream. (X. F.)
2. A drive is said to be " in a solid jam " when the stream is full of logs
from the point to which the rear is cleared to the miU, sorting jack or
storage boom. (N. F.)
Sorting boom. A strong boom used to guide logs into the sorting jack, to
both sides of which it is usually attached. (Gen.)
Sorting gap. Sec Sorting jack.
Sorting jack. A raft, secured in a stream, through an opening in which logs
pass to be sorted by their marks and diverted into pocket booms or the
downstream channel. (Gen.)
Syn. : sorting gap.
Spanish windlass. A device for moving heavy objects in logging. It
consists of a rope or chain, within a turn of which a lever is inserted and
power gained by twasting. (N. F.)
Syn.: twdster.
Spiked skid. A skid in which spikes are inserted in order to keep logs from
sliding back when being loaded or piled. (Gen.)
Splash, V. To drive logs by releasing a head of water confined by a splash
dam. (Gen.)
Syn.: flood, sluice.
Splash boards. Boards placed temporarily on top of a rolling dam to
heighten the dam, and thus to increase the head of water available for
river driving. (X. F.)
Splash dam. A dam built to store a head of w'ater for driving logs.
(Gen.)
Syn.: flood dam. (Gen.)
Split roof. A roof of a logging camp or barn made by laying strips split
from straight-grained timber. The strips run from the ridge pole to the
eaves, and break the joints with other strips, as in a shingle roof. (N. F.)
Spool donkey. A donkey engine for winding cable, equipped with a spool
or capstan, instead of a drum. (P. C. F.)
Spool tender. One who guides the cable on a spool donkey. (P. C. F.)
Spot, ?. See Blaze.
Spring board. A short board, shod at one end with an iron calk, which is
inserted in a notch cut in a tree, on which the faller stands while feUing the
tree. (P. C. F., S. F.)
Spring pole. i. A springy pole attached to the tongue of a logging sled
and passing over the roll and under the beam, for holding the w-eight of
the tongue ofi' the horses' necks. (X. F.)
APPENDIX 505
2. A device for steadying a crosscut saw, so that one man can use it
instead of two. (P. C. F.)
Sprinkler, n. A large wooden tank from which water is sprinkled over
logging roads during freezing weather in order to ice the surface. (N. W.,
L. S.)
Syn.: tank.
Sprinkler sleds. The sleds upon which the sprinkler is mounted. They
consist of two sleds whose runners turn up at each end, fastened together
by cross chains, and each having a pole, in order that the sprinkler may
be hauled in either direction without turning around. (N. F.)
Spud, n. A tool for removing bark. (Gen.)
Syn. : barking iron.
Spudder, n. See Barker.
Stag, V. To cut off trousers at the knee, or boots at the ankle. (N. F.,
P. C. F.)
Standard, ii. See Market. »
Starting bar. Sec Gee throw.
Stay boom. A boom fastened to a main boom and attached upstream to
the shore to give added strength to the main boom. (Gen.)
Steam hauler. A geared locomotive used to haid loaded logging sleds over
an ice road. It is equipped with a spiked metal belt which runs over
sprocket wheels replacing the driving wheels, and is guided by a sled,
turned by a steering wheel, upon which the front end rests. (N. F.)
Steam jammer. See Steam loader.
Steam loader. A machine operated by steam and used for loading logs
upon cars. (Gen.)
Syn. : loader, steam jammer.
Steam skidder. See Skidder.
Stem winder. See Corkscrew.
Stillwater. That part of a stream having such slight fall that no current
is apparent. Ant. : quickwater. (Gen.)
Syn.: deadwater.
Stock logs, to. To deUver logs from stump to mill or railroad. (S. F.)
Storage boom. A strong boom used to hold logs in storage at a sawmill.
(Gen.)
Syn.: holding boom, receiving boom.
Straw boss, n. A subforeman in a logging camp. (N. W., L. S.)
Syn. : head push.
Stream jam. See Center jam.
Stringer road. See Fore-and-aft road.
Stumpage, n. The value of timber as it stands uncut in the woods; or, in
a general sense, the standing timber itself. (Gen.)
Swamp, V. To clear the ground of underbrush, fallen trees and other ob-
structions preparatory to constructing a logging road or opening out a
gutter road. (Gen.)
5o6 APPENDIX
Swamper, n. One who swamps. (Gen.)
Syn. : beaver, gutterman. (N. F.)
Swamp hook. A large, single hook on the end of a chain, used in handling
logs, most commonly in skidding. (Gen.)
Sway bar. i. A strong bar or pole, two of which couple and hold in posi-
tion the front and rear sleds of a logging sled. (N. F.)
2. The bar used to couple two logging cars. (Gen.)
Swell butted. As applied to a tree, greatly enlarged at the base. (Gen.)
Syn.: bottle butted, churn butted.
Swing, V. See Gun.
Swing dingle. A single sled with wood-shod runners and a tongue with
lateral play, used in hauling logs down steep slopes on bare ground.
(N. F.)
Syn.: loose-tongued sloop.
Swing team. In a logging team of six, the pair between the leaders and the
butt team. (P. C. F.)
Tail chain. A heavy chain bound around the trailing end of logs, as a brake,.
in slooping on steep slopes. (N. W.)
Taildown, to. To roll logs on a skidway to a point on the skids where they
can be quickly reached by the loading crew. (N. F.)
Tail hold. i. A means of obtaining increased power in moving a log by
tackle. The cable is passed through a block attached to the log and the
end fastened to a stationary object, so that hauUng on the other end gives
twice the power which would be attained by direct attachment of the
cable to the log. (P. C. F.)
2. The attachment of the rear end of a donkey sled, usually to a tree
or stump. (P. C. F.)
Tail hook. See Dog.
Tally board. A thin, smooth board used by a scaler to record the number
or volume of logs. (Gen.)
Tally man. One who records or tallies the measurements of logs as they
are called by the scaler. (N. F.)
Tank, n. See Sprinkler.
Tank conductor. One who has charge of the crew which operates a sprinkler
or tank, and who regulates the flow of water, in icing logging roads.
(N.F.)
Tank heater. A sheet-iron cyUnder extending through a tank or sprinkler,
in which a fire is kept to prevent the water in the tank from freezing while
icing logging roads in extremely cold weather. (N. F.)
Tanking. The act of hauling water in a tank, to ice a logging road. (N. F.)
Tee, n. A strip of iron about 6 inches long with a hole in the center, to
which a short chain is attached; it is passed through a hole in a gate
plank, turned crosswise, and so used to hold the plank when tripped in
a splash dam. (N. W.)
APPENDIX 507
Throw, V. See Wedge a tree, to.
Throw line. See Trip line.
Throw out. See Frog.
Tide, n. A freshet. In the Appalachian region logs are rolled into a stream
and a " tide " awaited to carry them to the boom. (App.)
Timber wheels. See Logging wheels.
Toe ring. The heavy ring or ferrule on the end of a cant hook. It has a
lip on the lower edge to prevent slipping when a log is grasped. (Gen.)
Toggle chain. A short chain with a ring at one end and a toggle hook and
ring at the other, fastened to the sway bar or bunk of a logging sled, and
used to regulate the length of a binding chain. (N. F.)
Syn.: bunk chain.
Toggle hook. A grab hook with a long shank, used on a toggle chain.
(N. F.)
Tonging, v. Handling logs with skidding tongs. (N. F.)
Top chains. Chains used to secure the upper tiers of a load of logs after the
capacity of the regular binding chains has been filled. (Gen.)
Top load. A load of logs piled more than one tier high, as distinguished
from a bunk load. (Gen.)
Top loader. That member of a loading crew who stands on the top of a load
and places logs as they are sent up. (Gen.)
Syn. : sky hooker. (N. F.)
Tote, V. To haul supplies to a logging camp. (N. F.)
Tote road. A road used for hauling suppUes to a logging camp. (N. F.)
Syn.: hay road.
Tote sled. See Jumper.
Tow team. An extra team stationed at an incline in a logging road to assist
the regular teams in ascending with loaded sleds. (N. F.)
Syn.: snatch team.
Trailers, n. Several logging sleds hitched behind one another and pulled
by from 4 to 8 horses driven by one man, thus saving teamster's wages.
(N. F.)
Tram, n. See Tramway.
Tramway, n. A light or temporary railroad for the transportation of logs,
often with wooden rails and operated by horse power. (Gen.)
Syn.: tram.
Travois, n. Sec Dray.
Travois road. See Skid road.
Trip, V. See Wedge a tree, to.
Trip, )i. Sec Turn.
Trip a dam, to. To remove the plank which closes a splash dam. (N. F.)
Trip line. i. A light rope attached to a dog hook, used to free the latter
when employed in breaking a jam, a skidway or a load. (N. F.)
Syn.: throw line.
2. See Haul back.
5o8 APPENDIX
Tripsin, n. A timber placed across the bottom of the sluiceway in a
splash dam, against which rest the planks by which the dam is closed.
(Gen.)
Trough roof. A roof on a logging camp or barn, made of small logs split
lengthwise, hollowed into troughs and laid from ridge pole to eaves. The
joints of the lower tier are covered by inverted troughs. (N. F.)
Turkey, n. A bag containing a lumberjack's outfit. To " histe the turkey"
is to take one's personal belongings and leave camp. (N. W., L. S.)
Turn, n. i. A single trip and return made by one team in hauling logs;
e.g., a four- turn road is a road the length of which will permit of only four
round trips per day. (N. F.)
Syn. : trip. (Gen.)
2. Two or more logs coupled together end to end for hauling. (P.C.F.)
Turnout, n. A short side road from a logging-sled road, to allow loaded
sleds to pass. (N. W., L. S.)
Twin sleds. See Logging sled.
Twister, ». See Spanish windlass.
Twitch, V. See Skid.
Two sleds. See Logging sled.
Undercut, v. See Notch.
Undercut, n. The notch cut in a tree to determine the direction in which
the tree is to fall, and to prevent splitting. (Gen.)
Syn.: notch (Gen.), nick (S. F.).
Undercutter, n. A skilled woodsman who chops the undercut in trees so
that they shall fall in the proper direction. (Gen.)
Union drive. A drive of logs belonging to several owners, who share the
expense pro rata. (N. F.)
Upright roller. A flanged roller placed upright at a bend in a skid road to
direct the cable. (P. C. F.)
Syn.: roller, dolly.
Value, V. See Cruise.
Valuer, n. See Cruiser.
Van, n. The small store in a logging camp in which clothing, tobacco and
medicine are kept to supply th(e crew. (N. W., L. S.) See Commissary.
"Wagon sled. See Logging sled.
Wanigan, n. A houseboat used as sleeping quarters or as kitchen and
dining room by river drivers. (N. W., L. S.)
Syn.: ark (N. F.), shanty boat (S. F.).
Water ladder. Pole guides up and down which a barrel slides in filling a
sprinkler by horse power. (N. W., L. S.)
Water slide. See Flume.
APPENDIX 509
Wedge a tree, to. To topple over with wedges a tree that is being felled.
(Gen.)
Syn.: throw, trip.
Wet slide. Sec Flume.
Whiffletree neckyoke. A heavy logging neckyoke, to the ends of which
short whiffletrees are attached by rings. From the ends of the whiffletrees
wide straps run to the breeching, thus giving the team added power in
holding back loads on steep slopes. (N. F.)
White water man. A log driver who is expert in breaking jams on rapids or
faUs. (N. F.)
Widow maker. A broken limb hanging loose in the top of a tree, which in
its fall may injure a man below (N. F.), or a breaking cable (P. C. F.)
Wigwam, to make a. In felling trees, to lodge several in such a way that
they support each other. (N. F.)
Windfall, n. An area upon which the trees have been thrown by wind;
also, a single tree thrown by wind. (Gen.)
Syn. : blow down, wind slash. (N. F.)
Windshake, n. See Shake.
Wind slash. See Windfall.
Wing dam. See Pier dam.
Wing jam. A jam which is formed against an obstacle in the stream and
slants upstream until the upper end rests solidly against one shore, with
an open channel for the passage of logs on the opposite side. (N. F.)
Woodpecker, n. A poor chopper. (Gen.)
Wrapper chain. See Binding chain.
Yard, n. See Landing.
Yarding donkey. A donkey engine mounted upon a heavy sled, used in
yarding logs by drum and cable. (P. C. F.)
LOG RULES AND TABLES OF
CUBIC CONTENTS
TABLE I. — CLARK'S INTERNATIONAL LOG RULE^
c
Length in feet.
0) u
8
9
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
s
Contents in board feet .2
6
10
IC
IC
15
15
15
20
20
20
25
25
30
30
7
15
15
15
2C
20
25
25
30
30
35
35
40
45
8
20
2C
25
25
30
35
35
40
45
45
50
55
60
9
25
3C
30
35
40
45
50
50
55
60
65
70
75
lO
30
35
4c
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
85
90
95
II
40
45
50
55
65
70
75
80
90
95
105
no
"S
12
50
55
65
70
75
85
90
100
105
115
125
130
140
13
60
65
75
85
90
100
no
120
130
140
145
155
i6s
14
70
80
90
100
no
120
130
140
150
160
175
185
195
IS
80
90
105
115
125
140
150
160
175
185
200
215
225
i6
95
105
120
130
145
160
170
185
200
215
230
245
260
17
105
120
135
150
165
180
195
210
225
245
260
275
29s
i8
120
135
155
170
185
205
220
240
255
275
295
310
330
19
135
155
175
190
210
230
250
270
290
310
330
350
370
20
150
170
195
215
235
25s
275
300
320
345
365
390
410
21
170
190
215
235
260
285
305
330
355
380
405
430
455
22
185
210
235
260
285
315
340
365
390
420
445
475
500
23
205
230
260
285
315
345
370
400
430
460
490
520
550
24
225
255
285
315
345
375
405
440
470
500
535
565
600
25
245
275
310
345
375
410
445
475
510
545
580
615
650
26
265
300
335
370
405
445
480
520
555
595
630
670
705
27
290
325
365
405
440
480
520
560
600
640
680
725
765
28
310
350
395
435
475
520
560
605
645
690
735
780
825
29
335
380
425
470
510
560
605
650
695
740
790
835
885
30
360
405
455
500
550
600
645
695
745
795
845
895
950
31
385
435
485
S40
590
640
695
745
800
850
905
960
1015
32
410
465
520
575
630
685
740
795
850
910
965
1025
1080
35
440
495
555
610
670
730
790
850
905
970
1030
1090
1150
34
470
530
590
650
715
775
840
900
965
1030
1095
1160
1225
35
495
560
625
690
755
825
890
955
1025
1095
1 160
1230
1300
36
525
595
665
735
800
875-
945
1015
1085
1 160
1230
1305
1375
37
560
630
705
775
850
925
1000
107s
1150
1225
1300
1380
1445
38
590
665
745
820
895
975
1055
1135
1210
1295
1375
1455
1535
39
620
705
785
865
945
1030
mo
"95
1280
1365
1450
1535
1620
40
65s
740
825
910
995
1085
II 70
1260
1345
1435
1525
1615
1 70s
41
690
780
870
960
1050
1140
1230
1325
141S
1510
1605
1700
1795
42
725
820
915
lOIO
IIOO
1200
1295
1390
1490
1585
1685
1785
1885
43
760
860
960
1060
"55
1260
1360
1460
1560
1665
1770
1870
1975
44
800
900
1005
mo
1215
1320
1425
1530
1635
1745
1855
i960
2070
45
^35
945
1055
1160
1270
1380
1490
1600
1715
1825
1940
2050
2165
46
875
990
IIOO
1215
1330
1445
1560
1675
1790
1910
2030
2145
2265
47
915
1035
1150
1270
1390
1510
1630
1750
1870
1995
2120
2240
2365
48
955
1080
1205
1325
1450
1575
1700
1830
1955
2085
2210
2340
2470
' By permission of Judson F. Clark.
' The contents are for logs sawed on a band saw cutting J-inch kerf. Correction factors for lumber
cut with saws removing other kerfs are given on p. no.
513
514
APPENDIX
TABLE II. — SCRIBXER DECIMAL "C" LOG RULE^
FOR LOGS UP TO AND IXCLUDIXG 32 FEET IX LEXGTH
Length in feet.
~
Diameter
in inches.
6
8
10
12
14
16 18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
Contents ii
board feet.
6.
7-
8.
9-
10.
II.
12.
13-
14-
IS-
16.
17-
18.
19-
20.
21 .
22.
23-
24-
25-
26.
27.
28.
29.
30-
31-
32.
II-
34-
35-
36.
37-
38.
39-
40.
41-
42.
43-
44-
45-
0-5
0.5
I
I
I
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
1
4
0.5
I
I
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
3
5
I
I
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
5
6
6
I
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
6
6
7
8
2
3
3
3
4
6
6
7
8
9
9
10
II
2
3
4
4
5
7
8
8
9
10
II
12
13
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
12
13
14
15
4
5
6
7
8
10
II
12
13
15
16
17
18
4
6
7
9
10
II
13
14
16
17
19
20
21
5
7
0
II
12
14
16
18
20
21
23
25
27
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
7
9
12
14
16
18
21
23
25
28
30
32
35
8
II
13
16
19
21
24
27
29
32
35
37
40
0
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
2>Z
3b
39
42
45
II
14
17
21
24
28
31
35
38
42
45
49
52
12
1=;
IQ
23
27
30
34
3S
42
46
40
53
57
i.S
17
21
25
29
33
38
42
46
50
54
58
93
14
19
23
28
?>2>
3B
42
47
52
57
61
66
71
IS
21
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
61
66
71
76
17
23
29
34
40
46
52
57
63
69
75
80
86
IQ
25
31
37
44
50
5b
62
69
75
82
88
94
21
27
34
41
48
55
62
68
75
82
89
96
103
22
2Q
36
44
51
58
65
73
80
87
95
102
109
23
31
38
46
^2,
61
68
76
84
91
99
107
114
25
Zl
41
49
57
66
74
82
90
99
107
115
123
27
36
44
53
62
71
80
8q
q8
106
115
124
133
28
37
46
55
64
74
83
92
lOI
no
120
129
138
2Q
39
49
59
69
78
88
98
108
118
127
137
147
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
no
120
130
140
150
33
44
55
66
77
88
98
lOQ
120
131
142
153
164
3,=;
46
5«
69
81
92
104
115
127
138
150
161
173
39
51
64
77
90
103
116
129
142
154
167
180
193
40
54
67
80
93
107
120
133
147
160
174
187
200
42
56
70
84
98
112
126
140
154
168
182
196
210
45
60
75
90
105
120
135
150
166
181
196
211
226
48
64
79
95
III
127
143
1.59
175
191
207
223
238
50
67
84
lOI
117
134
151
168
185
201
218
235
252
52
70
«7
105
122
140
157
174
192
209
227
244
262
S6
74
03
III
129
148
166
185
204
222
241
259
278
57
76
95
114
133
152
171
190
209
228
247
266
286
9
12
14
16
19
23
28
32
37
43
48
56
61
67
75
81
92
100
no
116
122
131
142
147
157
160
175
i8s
206
214
224
241
254
269
279
296
304
1 Taken from the National Forest Manual, U. S. Forest Service.
APPENDIX
515
TABLE II. — Continued.
SCRIBNER DECIMAL "C" LOG
RULE
Diameter
in inches.
Length in feet.
8 10
12
14
16
18
20
22 24
26
28 ^ 30
Contents in board feet.
46
47
48
49
50
51
5-'
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
59
79
99
119
139
159
178
198
218
238
258
278
297
62
83
104
124
145
166
186
207
228
248
269
290
310
65
86
108
130
151
173
194
216
238
260
281
302
324
67
90
112
^55
157
180
202
225
247
270
292
314
337
70
94
117
140
164
187
211
234
257
281
304
328
351
73
97
122
146
170
195
219
243
268
292
315
341
365
76
lOI
127
152
177
202
228
253
278
304
329
354
380
79
105
132
158
184
210
237
263
289
316
341
368
395
82
109
137
164
191
218
246
273
300
328
355
382
410
85
113
142
170
198
227
255
283
312
340
368
397
425
88
118
147
176
206
235
264
294
323
353
382
411
441
91
122
152
183
213
244
274
304
335
3^5
39b
426
457
95
126
158
189
221
252
284
315
347
379
410
442
473
98
131
163
196
229
261
294
327
359
392
425
457
490
lOI
135
169
203
237
270
304
338
372
406
439
473
507
105
140
175
210
245
280
315
350
385
420
455
490
525
108
145
181
217
253
289
325
362
398
434
470
506
542
112
149
187
224
261
299
?,?,b
373
411
448
485
523
560
116
154
193
232
270
309
348
387
425
464
503
541
580
119
159
199
239
279
319
358
398
438
478
518
558
597
123
164
206
247
288
329
370
412
453
494
535
57^^
617
127
170
212
254
297
339
381
423
466
508
550
593
635
131
175
219
262
306
350
393
437
480
524
568
611
655
135
180
226
271
316
361
406
452
497
542
587
632
677
139
186
232
279
325
372
419
465
512
558
605
651
698
144
192
240
287
335
383
430
478
526
574
622
670
717
148
197
247
296
345
395
444
493
543
592
641
691
740
152
203
254
305
356
406
457
508
559
610
661
712
762
157
209
261
314
366
418
471
523
576
628
680
733
785
161
215
269
323
377
430
484
538
592
646
700
754
807
166
221
277
332
387
443
498
553
609
664
719
775
830
171
228
285
341
398
455
5"
568
625
682
739
796
852
176
234
293
351
410
468
527
585
644
702
761
819
878
180
240
301
361
421
481
541
602
662
722
782
842
902
185
247
309
371
432
494
556
618
680
742
804
866
927
190
254
317
381
444
508
572
635
699
762
826
889
953
196
261
326
391
456
521
586
652
717
782
847
912
977
201
268
?,?,;i
401
468
535
601
668
735
802
869
936
1002
206
275
343
412
481
549
618
687
755
824
893
961
1030
210
281
351
421
491
561
631
702
772
842
912
982
1052
317
331
346
359
374
389
405
421
437
453
470
487
505
523
541
560
579
597
619
637
659
677
699
723
744
765
789
813
837
861
885
909
936
963
1016
1043
1069
1099
1123
5i6
APPENDIX
TABLE II. — Concluded.
SCRIBXER DECIMAL "C
RULE
LOG
Diameter
in inches.
Length in feet.
14 I i6 I 18
Contents in board feet.
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
lOI
102
103
104
loS
106
107
108
109
no
III
112
"3
114
IIS
116
117
118
119
120
2I.S
287
3.S9
431
503
575
646
221
295
368
442
516
589
663
226
301
377
452
527
603
678
231
308
385
462
530
616
693
236
315
393
472
551
629
708
241
322
402
483
563
644
725
246
329
411
493
575
657
739
z.Si
,335
419
503
.587
671
754
257
343
428
514
600
685
771
262
350
437
525
612
700
788
268
357
446
536
625
715
804
27.S
364
455
546
637
728
819
278
371
464
557
650
743
835
284
379
473
568
663
757
852
289
386
482
579
675
772
869
29.S
393
492
590
688
787
88s
301
401
502
602
702
803
903
,307
409
512
614
716
819
921
313
417
522
626
730
835
939
319
425
.532
638
744
851
957
32.S
433
542
650
758
867
975
331
442
553
663
773
884
995
337
450
503
675
788
900
1013
344
459
573
(388
803
917
1032
350
467
583
700
817
933
1050
3S6
475
594
713
832
951
1069
362
483
604
725
846
967
1087
369
492
615
738
861
984
1 107
375
501
626
751
876
lOOI
1126
382
509
637
764
891
1019
1 146
389
519
648
778
908
1037
1167
396
528
660
792
924
1056
1 188
403
537
672
806
940
1075
1209
410
547
683
820
957
1093
1230
417
556
f>95
834
973
1112
1251
718
737
753
770
805
822
838
857
875
893
910
928
947
965
983
1003
1023
1043
1063
1083
1 105
1125
1 147
1167
790
810
829
847
86;
904
922
942
963
»62 934
884! 958
904 979
924 looi 1078
944 1023 iioi
966
986
1006
1028'
10501
1047
1068
1090
1114
1138
1161
1 183
102111141207
1041 1136 1231
1062 1158 1255
9831072!
1001^1092
V
1082
1 104
1 1 26
1 148
1 1 70
II92
I2I6
1238
I26I
1283
ii88]i307
1 208 1 13 29
1230 1353
1377
1273
1297
1320
1343
1367
1 180 1278
1204I1304
1228 1330
I252;i356
1276 1382
1300! 1408
I326|i437
1350 1463
1376 1491
1400 1517
1006,1077
1031,1105
1130
1155
1 180
1127
1150
1174
1 199
1225
1251
1274
1300
1325
1351
1377
1405
1433
146 1
1547
1575
1605
1633
1401
1426;
1452
1478
1503
13901529
1426 1545 1664
i45o[i57i|i692
1476.1599,1722
1502 1627 1752
152811655I1783
1556 1686 1815
1584 1716 1848
i6i2'i746 1881
16401777 1913
1668 1807 1946
1208
1232
1257
1285
1313
1340
1365
1392
1420
1448
1475
1505
1535
1565
159s
1625
1658
1688
1720
1782
1812
1845
1877
1910
1945
1980
2015
2050
2085
149
179
205
232
259
288
315
341
371
400
429
456
485
515
544
573
605
637
669
701
733
768
800
83s
867
901
933
968
2003
2037
2075
2112
2149
2187
2224
APPENDIX
517
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(N <N M 0 000 t^O lOTi-tv;<s IN 0 OOOOO t^VS lO r}" ro "N M O O^OO I^ O vo tJ- ro <N
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CO •*0 0 '^^co -^OO iMOO ^OO <"ico 'tO-C ^'CO ^QO "noO ■*Q<}'^'=<5 "*0
00 csO O-' <^<i 0 rJ-t^M ^00 CN u-)C^<^^vO O rot^O -*cO m wjco m O O^ <^-^ O T
IN r^^r'j't-^iOiOiy-jOOO t^t^t^COCO CT^O^CTO O O m m i-i <^ "^i <^ r^rC'*'^
^t~~0 ^t^O r-^O 0 "^O 0 -■ rCO 0 '^t^O ^0 C^CNnO 0 fOO O-iN rc-O 0<^i
0 ONtnO 0<^<3 O-r^iO On^O OWO OinO OC^ ioO<N^ 0-'>' •-', o-O) UOCO <N
CI c^ cv^oOfO'^'^'^lOUOiOOOO f^f^r^OOOOCO C^O"-Q^O 0 0 ^ •-< I-* Cl w CN r*^
N (N 01 rtrcro^,CO ^-*-*lou-)tnvooOOO t^t^t-^t^COCOCOCO O- O O O O O
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(N C4 rorCro^-*-*'^iOVOVOOOO^O t^t^ t^OO OCOOO^O-C-C-OOO'-'""-'^
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PI -*:^0 roioco M ^0 O-ci i/^t^o <^/OaO « ^t^oci LOCO " re vc 0~fi ■*r^O
<N C4 IN r<otv:ror^'i-"!j-^'^volOiOOOOO t^t^t^t^COOOCO C-C^O^O-O O O —
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0 LOO loO loO LoO LoO LoO LOO loO ^oO loo loO ^oO toO iJOO loO loO
0 <N lot^O ci Loi^O ci lot-^O c) lor^O ci lof^o ci Lor^O ^j loi^O ^i loi^O
(N oi CN cj oocoro^O'^'^'^'^iOLOLOLo OO^CO r^t^i^t^coooooco O^CT'OO^O
0 fCOCO 1-1 rO"00 O-f^O Cnin ooO 0-" nOOO C-Cl loOO cio C~<N Lot^O 1^
00 0 N ■rt-t^Osi-i rolOCO 0 cj lot^C" -+0 00 0 ci T)-t^o^« -^OOO '-' "OloCO O
i-H cs <N P) <N (N rorO^Oro^-*-*'i-TriOiOLoLOOOO<JO r^t^t^t^OOOOOCCO O
<N (N IN rorOcorO"~j'*'l-':f^-*<0"^. "-OOOOvC^COO t^OOCOCOOC C-OOvO O
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M M C4 M Ci CI C^ COCOCCrOf^'^'^'^'^'^lOLOLOLOLOO 0^00 t^t^t^r^t^CO
Tj-co*-' O^t^iOcOHH ot^ioco^ C>r^iO^^ 0000 Tfci OCOO "^Cl OCOO -^Ci
TfOCO O" cOior^OC 0 CI -rl-vC t^CM coLot^CO O ci Tj-O t^OM c^loOOO 0 f^
M M M M 0 CI C* CI C4 rO^^OCOCOf^'^'^'^'^^LOLOLOLOlOLO OOOMDO t^t^
CO ^00 cjco "*00 CI CO ^OvO CI CO Tt-00 cico ^00 CI CO ^00 CI 00 ^0
CI rto t-~0^0 CI -^Lot-^CO 0 CI co^oooo 0 i-i rOTt-OCO O" ci rho r^OO ci tJ-
1-1 M 1-1 M M CI CI CI CI CI CI cotocococo^^r-*^'^^^'*ioLOLoioio loo vC 0
d r^M LoO^coi^i-1 LoOcor^O loococo "O O ^00 mO O -^oO cio O ^co ci
H CI i^LoOCO Oi-i Ci COLOOOO O^O CI COLOVOOO 0>0 CJ COLOO t^OO Cl CC"*0
M 1-1 <-< 1-1 M H M Cl CI CI CI CI Cl C< COfO^OtOCOfO'^^^^'+'^^'^lOlOlOLOLO
00 0 Cl ioi>-Oi-i -"^OCO 0 roioi^oci ^000 1-1 cQLor^O ci to Om colocO 0
0 1-1 Cl ro "* K-> I^CO 0 0 Cl CO ^ LOO CO 0 0 1-1 CO ^ LOO CO On O 1-1 Cl t)- loo r^ O-
Ml-IMt-IMlHMI-tClClClClCIClCIClCOCOceCOCOCOCOfO'^'^^T'^'^'^'^
^ LOO 0 r^ t^oo O0000i-ii-icicicor0"*io loO O i^ r^co o^OnOOi-ii-icici
00 On 0 1-1 Cl CO -* LOO 00 On 0 1-1 Cl CO ■* LOO r^oo On O i-i "N CO Tf Lo 1^00 On 0 1-1 Cl
MMl-lWl-ll-ll-IMIHClCIClCIClClCIClClCICOt^COCOCOCOrOCOCOTj-Tl-T^
Cl 1-1 0 OnOO C^O U-) r^ CO Cl 1-1 0 OnOO 1^0 LO Tj- CO Cl 1-1 0 OnOO t^O lO ■* CO Cl M 0
t^OO On On 0 1-1 Cl CO ■* LOO t^OO CO 0> O w Cl ro -* LOO t-- r^OO On O 1-1 Cl CO •* LOO
MHMI-IMMMMMI-II-ICICICICICICICICICICICICOCOCOCOCOCOCC
000 lOcOMOOO COMCOO COMCOO ^1-1 OnO -*ci OnO ^ci OO loci O r^Loci
0 0 t^oo OnOnO 1-1 Cl Cl co^vo LOO 1^00 oOO^OwtHCico^-:!- loO t^oo CO On O
HHMMl-lMl-lMHIHHI-ll-lCICICIClCqClClClClClCICICirO
00 Cl ONioi-iQO -^OO Cl Onlom r^-^OO coOnxocioO coOO ci Onlok-i t^coO
Lo LOO 0 t^oo OOOnOOmmcicoco*^io loo O r^co COOnOOm'-icicocO'^io
MWWMMl-lMMMMWWl-IMIHMCICIClC^CIClCIClCI
00 0 Loi-iO i-iO mO i-iO i-iO MO Cl i^ci t^ci r^ci r^ci r^ci r^ci r^ci ^^c^
-:J- •* 10 LOO 0 t^ 1^00 cOOnOnOOmi-icicicoco"*-'*>o loo 0 t^ r^oo CO On On O
Cl 0 0 'tCO N 0 0 'too Cl 0 0 '^CO Cl 0 0 'tCO -N 0 0 "*CO Cl 0 0 -4-CO Cl 0 0
CO ro 1* ■* ■* 10 LOO 0 0 t^ r^oo ooooONONOOOi-ii-icicicicocoT)-Ti-Ti-Lo 100
0
0
Ttoo 1-1 Tj-t^O <^0 Onci looO 1-1 "tt^O -*r~-0 coo Onci loco m tJ-i^O ccO Onci
Cl Cl cococO"*-*^Tt-lOlO LOO 0 0 t^ t^ t^CO OOOOOOOnOnOnOOOi-ii-ii-ii-ici
00 0 CO »0 t^ On Cl rt 0 00 M coo CO O Cl Ti-O On 1-1 CO LOGO 0 Cl tJ- t^ On M cr; LOOO 0
M Cl M d Cl Cl rofOcoco-^'J-^^ioiovoio LOO 000 t^ t-~ j:^ t^ t^oo 00 00 00 On
d tJ-O t^ On 0 ^ CO 10 t^CO 0 t-1 CO rtO t^ On M Cl t^ lo t^CO O Cl CO lOO 00 On l-l Cl
w H w M iH c-j c< Cl Cl Cl Cl cococo(r>cococoi*-^'*-'4-"*'l'ioio>oioLoio »oo 0
03 On 0 M Cl CO Tl- 100 r^OO On 0 IH Cl rO -* >00 r^OO On 0 M C) CO -+ LOO t^OO On O
WMMHMMMtHHi-iClClCIClCIClClClClClcOrococOfOcocOCOrrjco^
lomO CIOO COOn'^OO Mr^ coco -^ On »0 0 0 Cl 00 rOCO -^ 0 "O M r^ COOO Tj- On LO
■^lOLooo r^r^oo OnOnQ O w 1-1 ci cicOTt-^iOLooo t^ooco OnOnO O >-• >-i ci
0 CO 1000 0 CO lOOO 0 CO 10 CO 0 CO >O00 0 CO VOOO O rO lOCO O CO lOOO O co loOC O
Cl Cl Cl Cl corOcocO'i--+^'t'OLOLOlOOOOO t^t^t— t^oOOOOOOO OnOnOnOnQ
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5i8
APPENDIX
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t^OO O On O M CN CO rj- loo t^OO 00 On O ►-< <N CO •^ lOO t^ t^OO On O iH M CO 't lOO
MMMMMMHIMMMM01(NCNiC^C^01CNC^CNCN)C^COCOCOCOCOCOCO
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00 i>- lO "^ O) M OnCO O lO Th cn t_, OnOO O lO CO fNi m OnOO O lo CO Ol O OnCO O lO CO Ci
O i^CO On O M M Ol CO -^ lOO t^ t^OO On O M CNJ CO CO ^ loo t^OO On On O M OJ CO -^
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00 On O "-1 Ol CO Tt- lOO t-^OO On O M CN) f<~, ^ loO t^OO On O M <N CO -^ loo r~-00 On O
tJ-p) m ONr^iocow ONt^ioroCM OoOO •<i-CNi OOOO -^com Oni^iocom ONt^iOTf
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MtHMMMMM(-tMMMMMOiC^O»C*C^CSC^rSrSClCN|CSCSCO
00 O CO lO t>- On w coo OO O 0) O OO O CN| r)-o OO O cn| loO On <N O O On H co lOOO O
r^ lo CNi OnO cot-toO lOM O r^^M OnO co O r^ lo <n OnO comoO looi O i^-^m On
lOO 1^ 1^00 OnO O 1-1 OJ cocO'^lO lOO 1^00 OOONQOHCNjrocO'^ lOO O t^OO 00
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loo O t^oo OOOnOOmojcnco*^-^ lOO r^ f^oo OnOnO m m Ofcoco*^io loo t^
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lo loo i>- t^oo coONOOi-io)0)ro-+Tf lOO O t^ t^oo OnOnO m w O) cocorfrfio
MMMMIHI-IMI-IMI-IMMI-Il-Il-Ii-IOJOCSMCNICNJINOCS
OOl-ll-<l-l'-'l-ll-ll-ll-ll-ll-'Otl-l'^l-IO)M0401CJ(NO)tNOI0101INO)M01CS04
CO -^OO CSOO -^OO MOO -^OO iNOO -^OO CNjoO -^OO OIOO -^OO <N00 tJ-O
■^ lOO O t^ t^oo OnOnO O m <n oi coco'i-io loO O t^oo oOOnOnOwmoiojco^
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lO O O i-i t^ coco TfO lowo ot ca oOOnIOOO w r^ COOO -d-O lOMO OICO OOONIO
-* lo lOO O t^ t^oo OnOnOOmwojoiooM-'^io loo O t^oo cOOnOnOOi-i'-ioi
l-liHWMMI-IMl-IMl-ll-IMHMMMMMOlOlCSOtM
O CO O CO 1-1 CO NO Onm -^o Onm -^O Onoi -^r^O oi -^i^Onoi loi^O cnj iogO O cs
O) r^ cs x^ COOO COOO -^On-^OnioO lOOO mo cs x^oi t^cscO coco -^ On -^ On lO O
■^ ^ lO lOO O t^ t^OO 00 OnOnO m m cnj rs coco-^-^lO lOO O t^ i>-CO 00 On On O m
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMCSO)
cs M O OnOO t^O lO Tf CO O) 1-1 O OnCO t^ O lO ■* OO OI M O O" OO t^O lO Tf OO 0) M O
0^ -^ On coco coco coco COOO coco OI t^cs r^cs r^O) f^oi t^MO MO MO MO MO
OO -^ -^ lO lOO O t^ t^OO 00OnOn00mm010)0O00t1-^IO lOO O J^ t^OO 00 On On
tJ-OO oi t^csco 000-^:1-0 'ooi t-^r}-0N"<*-0N-^0O MO OJOO cOOO ■* O O M oO oj
O M lo O ^ On oocO oit^ o<o mioO-^On OOOO cof-oio M loO -^On ■^00 OO J^ O)
CO ^ •* lO lO lOO O t^ f^OO OOOnOnOOOmmCSO)0000-*i*-1010 lOO O I^ 1^00
OO O OI lo r^ On M coo OO m co lo r^ O oi ^o oO O cs -^o On cs t^-o On oj coO oO O
COOO OSO O t}-Oncoi^mO O "^OO CO t^ m lO On -^CO o<o O ioOnoo^^oio O ^O
CO CO ^ ^ lo lO lOO O t^ t>.00 OOOO OnOnO O O m m cs oi cococo-rf-^io lOO O O
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APPENDIX
519
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M
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8
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000
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00 M
0 i-l CS
H C OnCn) ioOn'^m OnoO On 0 CO t— CO On t^O OOO h -tOO -^cocOT+t^M
CO •* "to ^-00 0 M coLot^-O 01 •^t^ONOi lOOO w looO 01 loOncoi^h loO
000
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COCO^O t-^00 0 H coloj~>.Onh coOCO h Tft^O COO O cot^H LOO-cOt^
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CN CO T LO t^OO On H CM rj- o 00 0 CO LO f^ 0 coo 00 H 1000 H LOOO (N 0 0 't
000
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0 M IN
coo Tfior^O rj-O-LOCt 0 0 0 co-JtCO cOOnO Lo^frfo OnC-i t-~coO O-CO
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0 M M 0) ro "T 100 t^OO t~i roiot^OM CO looo O coo 00 m t^ r^ i-i ^00 m \n 0|
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0 M M <N CO -* 100 r^co 0 w CO -"i-so 00 0 c< Tj-t^ooi Ttt--0 coo 0 c^ lO 0> M \0 |
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0 CO CO ^ LOO r^ On 0 CI CO LOO 00 0 !N T^ t^ On H Tf O On CI LOOO H tJ- t^ O
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coo-o Lo-t-toco H loONioiN ONt^t^t^oo 0 CIO HO coooo f^r^oo O
CI CI CO 't LOO t^co Oho -to t^ On h co looO O ci 10 r^ O co looo h tJ-oo
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CI CI CO Tj- ^ LOO t^0>0 H cO'tO i~-Onh cOLot^ONH Tl-000 H ^to OnCI
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H M 0 CO CO ^t LO 100 t^CO On 0 H CO Tt" LO I>-O0 0 H CO LOO 00 0 0 ^0 03
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520
APPENDIX
TABLE V. — THE NEW HAMPSHIRE OR BLODGETT
LOG RULEi
u* •
Length
in feet.
5.S
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
-
Contents in board feel
4
5
6
7
9
10
10
II
13
14
15
r
16
17
18
19
20
21
S
8
10
II
13
15
17
18
20
21
23
24
26
28
30
31
33
6
12
14
16
19
22
24
26
29
31
34
37
38
41
43
46
49
7
i6
19
22
26
29
33
36
39
43
46
50
52
S6
59
63
66
8
22
26
30
35
39
43
48
52
57
61
65
70
74
78
83
87
9
27
33
38
43
50
54
60
6S
70
77
81
87
93
98
103
108
10
34
41
48
54
61
68
75
82
88
95
102 ]
09
116
123
129
136
II
41
so
57
66
74
82
90
98
107
IIS
123 ]
31
140
148
157
164
12
49
S8
69
78
88
97
108
117
127
137
147 ]
57
166
177
186
196
13
57
70
80
92
103
115
126
137
149
161
172 ]
83
195
207
218
230
14
66
80
93
106
120
133
146
160
174
186
200 2
13
226
240
253
266
IS
77
91
107
123
137
153
168
183
199
214
230 i
44
260
27s
290
305
16
87
104
122
139
157
174
191
209
226
243
261 1 i
78
296
313
330
348
17
98
117
137
157
177
197
216
236
255
275
295 :
!I4
334
353
373
392
18
no
132
154
176
198
220
242
264
284
308
330 ;
52
374
397
418
440
19
123
148
171
197
221
245
270
294
319
343
368 ;
92
417
442
466
490
20
136
163
190
217
244
271
299
326
353
380
408 i
35
462
490
517
543
21
ISO
180
210
240
270
300
330
360
390
420
450 A
80
510
540
570
600
22
165
197
230
262
296
329
363
395
427
460
493 ;
26
559
592
624
657
23
180
216
251
287
323
359
396
431
467
503
539 5
75
610
647
683
718
24
196
235
274
313
352
391
430
469
509
548
S87 (
26
665
704
739
783
25
212
253
297
339
383
424
467
509
551
595
637 (
79
722
764
807
849
26
230
276
322
367
413
459
505
551
597
643
689 '
35
781
827
872
918
27
248
297
347
397
446
496
544
594
643
693
743 '
92
842
891
941
990
28
266
319
373
426
479
533
586
639
692
745
799 i
52
905
958
1012
1065
29
285
343
400
457
514
572
629
685
743
800
865 e
14
971
1029
1085
1143
30
306
367
428
489
5SO
611
672
734
795
856
917 ?
78
1039
IIOI
1 162
1223
31
326
391
457
S14
588
653
718
783
849
914
979 ic
44
IIIO
1175
1240
32
348
417
487
557
626
696
765
835
904
974
1043 I
13
1183
1252
1322
33
370
443
517
592
666
740
814
888
962
1036
IIIO I
83
1257
1331
34
392
471
549
628
707
785
863
943
102 1
1099
1178 I.
'57
1335
1414
35
416
499
S83
666
749
832
916
998
1082
1165
1251 I.
$31
1415
36
440
528
617
704
792
880
969
1057
1 144
1232
1321 I.
109
1497
37
46s
558
651
744
837
930
1023
1116
1209
1302
1395 I
l88
38
490
S89
687
785
883
981
1079
1177
1275
1374
1471 I,
;69
39
S17
620
723
827
930
1034
I137
1240
1343
1446
1550
40
543
652
761
870
978
1087
I196
1304
1413
1522
1630
41
571
685
799
914
1028
I142
1257
1370
1484
1508
42
599
719
839
959
1078
1198
1318
1438
1557
1678
43
626
751
877
1002
1126
I251
1377
1502
1627
44
657
790
921
1052
1183
1315
1447
1578
1709
45
688
826
963
IIOI
1238
1376
1513
1650
46
718
863
1006
II49
1294
1437
1581
1725
47
742
900
1050
I20I
1350
1501
1650
48
783
939
1096
1252
1409
1565
1722
1 From the Woodman's Handbook.
APPENDIX
521
TABLE VI. — VOLUME OF SOLID WOOD PER 128 CUBIC
FEET OF SPACE 1
Length of
stick.
1st class.
2nd class.
3rd class,
1st and 2nd
2nd and 3rd
small diameter
small diameter
small diameter
classes.
classes.
over 5.5 inches.
2.3 to 5-5 inches.
i.o to 2.3 inches.
mixed.
mixed.
Inches.
Cubic feet.
10
91.98
8^.40
65.70
88.69
73.55
12
91.80
85.23
63.69
88.53
75
.47
14
91.67
85.10
63.65
88.39
75
.38
16
91-50
84.9s
65.60
88.23
75
.28
18
91.37
84.80
63.55
88.09
75
18
20
91.20
84.67
63.50
87.94
73
09
22
91 05
84.50
63.40
87.78
74
95
24
90.90
84-35
65.32
87.63
74
84
26
90.73
84.20
65.23
87.48
74
72
28
90.60
84.03
65.12
87.33
74
39
30
90.45
83.90
65.00
87.18
74
43
Feet
3
89.98
83.40
64.60
86.69
74
00
4
88.92
82.42
63.62
85.67
73
02
5
87.75
81.30
62.60
84.53
71
93
6
86.43
80.00
61.60
83.23
70
80
7
85.38
78.82
60.55
82.10
69
69
8
83.75
77.20
59.40
80.48
68
30
9
82.40
75.80
58.20
79.10
67
00
10
81.00
74-30
56.90
77.65
63
60
II
79.60
72.80
33.60
76.20
64
20
12
78.05
71.20
34.23
74.63
62
73
13
76.43
69.60
52.90
73.03
61
23
14
74.83
67 -95
51.30
71.40
59.73
1 From Factors Influencing the ^'olume of Solid Wood in the Cord, by Raphael Zon, Forestry
Quarterly, Vol. I, p. 132.
TABLE VII. — VOLUME OF SOLID WOOD IN STACKS 1
(4 feet high, 8 feet long, and of varying widths)
Length of
stick.
1st class.
2nd class,
3rd class,
1st and 2nd
2nd and 3rd
small diameter
small diameter
small diameter
classes.
classes.
over 5.3 inches.
2.5 to 5.5 inches.
1.0 to 2.5 inches.
mixed.
mixed.
Inches.
Cubic feet.
10
19.30
17.50
1400
18.50
15.75
12
23 50
21.00
16.00
22.25
18.50
14
27.32
24 50
19.00
25 91
21.75
16
31.00
28.50
21.50
29.73
25.00
18
35.00
32.00
24.30
33 50
28.15
20
37.50
35.00
27.00
36.25
31.00 ■
22
42.20
3900
30.00
40.60
34.50
24
46.02
42.00
32.70
44.01
37. 35
26
50.00
46. CO
35.20
48.00
40.60
28
53.21
49.00
38.00
SI. 11
43.50
30
57.00
53.00
41.00
55.00
47.00
Feet
3
68.50
63.00
50.00
65.73
56.50
4
88.92
82.42
63-62
85.67
73.02
S
108.50
101.50
78.00
105.00
89.73
6
128.30
120.00
92.30
124.25
106. IS
7
149.53
138. OS
106.41
143.80
122.23
8
170.00
165.00
119.90
167.50
142.45
9
190.00
173.00
133.30
182.50
154.23
10
211.00
193.00
147.30
201.00
170.2s
II
230.00
210.50
161 . 20
220.25
183.85
12
2.50.00
228.00
173.00
239 00
201.50
13
269.00
245.. SO
189.00
257.25
217.2s
14
287.50
262.50
203.00
275.00
232.73
' From Factors Influencing the Volume of Solid Wood in a Cord, by Raphael Zon, Forestry
Quarterly, Vol. I, p. 133.
522
APPENDIX
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LOG GRADING RULES
1
HARDWOOD LOG GRADING RULES
(Nashville (Tenn.) Lumbermen's Association)
"Logs shall be graded as follows and designated as No. i, No. 2,
No. 3, No. 4, No. 5 and No. 6.
"No. I logs shall be 30 inches and up in diameter, fresh cut,
green, straight and free from knots, windshakes and other defects,
"No. 2 logs shall be 27 to 30 inches in diameter inclusive,
fresh cut, green, straight and free from knots, windshakes and
other defects, except that this grade may take logs 30 inches
and up in diameter with one to three small soHd knots not
exceeding 3 inches in diameter.
"No. 3 logs shall be 24 to 26 inches in diameter inclusive, fresh
cut, green, straight and free from knots, windshakes and other
defects, except that this grade may take logs 27 inches and up in
diameter with one to three small sohd knots not exceeding 3
inches in diameter,
"No. 4 logs shall be 20 to 23 inches in diameter inclusive, fresh
cut, green, straight and free from knots, windshakes and other
defects, except that this grade may take logs 24 inches and up
in diameter with one to three small sohd knots not exceeding
3 inches in diameter.
"No. 5 logs shall be 15 to 18 inches in diameter inclusive, fresh
cut, green, and free from knots, windshakes and other defects,
except that this grade may take logs 20 inches and up in diameter
with one to three small soHd knots not exceeding 3 inches in
diameter.
"No. 6 logs shall be 12 to 14 inches in diameter inclusive,
fresh cut, green, straight and free from knots, windshakes and
other defects, except that this grade may take logs 15 inches and
up in diameter with one to three small solid knots not exceeding
3 inches in diameter.
"All logs shall be cut full length.
525
526 APPENDIX
"The following rules shall govern all measurements for de-
fects.
"For a hollow log two-thirds of the diameter of the hollow in
inches, shall be deducted from the diameter of the log and the
hollow shall be measured the long way.
"Old logs shall have the following deductions made from con-
tents: 2 inches for logs that have been held over one season,
or that show sound discolored sap; 4 inches for logs older than
one season, or that show rotten, or doty sap. Logs that show
worm holes below sap line shall be classed as No. 6.
"All logs shall be measured at both ends. When there is a
variation of one inch in the diameter, the least end shall be taken
as the measurement of the log; if a variation of 2 inches, the
number of inches shall be divided; if 3 inches the number of
inches shall be divided as if only 2 inches; if 4 inches, the diam-
eter shall be divided, but if the difference exceeds 4 inches it
shall be divided as if only 4 inches.
" 'Edged' logs shall be measured the flat way.
"All crotch, or forked logs shall be cut off sufficient to clear
the crotch or fork.
"All crooked logs shall be classed as No. 6, unless sufficient
deductions are made for straightening.
"Ash Logs. — The same grading for defects shall apply to ash
logs as applies to other logs, but ash logs shall be of the following
sizes: No. i, 24 inches and up in diameter; No. 2, 20 to 23
inches inclusive in diameter; No. 3, 18- and 19-inch logs; No. 4,
16- and 17-inch logs; No. 5, 15-inch logs; No. 6, 12-, 13- and
14-inch logs.
" Linii, buckeye, hickory, gum, sycamore, beech, maple, butter-
nut, pine and hackberry logs. —
"No. I shall be 24 inches and up in diameter,- fresh cut, green,
straight and free from knots, windshakes and other defects.
"No. 2 shall be 20 to 23 inches in diameter inclusive, fresh
cut, green, straight and free from knots, windshakes and other
defects; except that this grade may take logs 24 inches and up in
diameter with one to three small solid knots not exceeding 3
inches in diameter.
APPENDIX 527
"No. 3 shall be 15 to 19 inches in diameter inclusive, fresh cut,
green, straight and free from knots, windshakes and other
defects; except that this grade may take logs 20 inches and up
in diameter with one to three small solid knots not exceeding 3
inches in diameter.
"Walnut Logs. — Walnut logs shall be subject to special
agreement between buyer and seller as to size and grading.
No piece of timber will be considered a saw log, or will be
measured as such, that is smaller in diameter than 12 inches.
'' Spikes. — Seller of logs will be held responsible for damage
resulting from spikes, or pieces of iron in logs.
"Brands. — All logs should be branded before being brought
to market. Defacing, or changing of brands on logs, subjects
perpetrator to prosecution."
DOUGLAS FIR LOG GRADING RULES
(Columbia River Log Scaling and Grading Bureau)
NO. I LOGS
"No. I logs shall be 30 inches or over in diameter inside the
bark at the small end, reasonably straight grained, and not less
than 16 feet long; and shaU be logs which in the judgment of the
scaler will contain at least 50 per cent of their scaled contents
in lumber in the grades of No. i and No. 2 Clear lumber.
" In a general way it may be said that a pitch ring is not a serious grade
defect in a No. i log, provided its location and size does not prevent the
log cutting the requisite amount of Clears. The same applies to rot.
Pitch pockets, seams, knots, etc., are defects which impair the grade in
proportion to their effect on the amount of Clears the log contains. A No. i
log wiU admit a few small knots, but must be surface clear for at least four-
fifths its length; a few pitch pockets, as permitted in the grades of clear
lujjiber, but no combination of defects which will prevent the required
percentage of Clears.
NO. 2 LOGS
"No. 2 logs shall be 16 inches or over in diameter inside the
bark at the small end; not less than 16 feet long, and having
defects which prevent its grading No. i, but which will in the
judgment of the scaler be suitable for the manufacture of lumber
principally in grades of 'merchantable' and better.
528 APPENDIX
NO. 3 LOGS
"No. 3 logs shall be 12 inches or over in diameter inside the
bark at the small end; not less than 16 feet long; having defects
which prevent its grading Xo. 2 and shall in the judgment of
the scaler be suitable for the manufacture of the inferior grades
of lumber.
CULL LOGS
'"Cull logs shall be any logs which do not contain 50 per cent
of sound lumber,
"All logs to be scaled by the Spalding Rule."
''Note. — The various lumber tallies we have had of graded yellow fir
rafts have shown that, figuring
No. I logs to contain 50 per cent of Clears,
No. 2 logs to contain 25 per cent of Clears,
No. 3 logs to contain no Clears,
there is a substantial overrun in the Clears obtained.
" Note. — There are defects characteristic of logs from certain localities
for which it is impossible to make rigid rules."
WAGE LISTS
i
MONTANA AND IDAHO, NOVEMBER, 191 1
Power logging:
Yarding hook tenders
Rigging slingers
Yarding engineers. . . .
Yarding firemen
Wood buckers
Chasers
Signal men
Spool tenders
Choker men
Head loaders
Locomotive firemen. .
Boom men
Railroad graders
Section men
Landing builders
Fltmkies
Second loaders
Knotters
Swampers
Buckers
Head fallers
Second fallers
Undercutters
Road engineers
Brakemen
Locomotive engineers.
Pump men
Night watchman
Blacksmith's helper. .
Bull cook
Blacksmith
Flunkey
Cook, 18 to 40 men. . . .
Cook, 40 men and over
Bull cook
Blacksmith
Locomotive engineer
Board per day. . . .
Board per week . . .
.ate per day
exclusive
of board.
$3.50 to $4.00
2.50 to
2-75
3 50
2.25 to
2.75
2 . 00 to
2.50
2 . 00 to
2.75
1.75 to
2.2s
2.50
2.50
2 . 50 to
3 25
2.50 to
3.00
2.50
1.75 to
2.00
1-75 to
2.00
2.25
2.25
2.50
2.50
1. 75 to
2.25
2.50
2.50
2.25 to
2.50
2.25
3-5°
2 . 50 to
3.00
4.00
2.25
2.00 to
3.00
2.25 to
2.50
2.25
2.50
Rate per month.
inclusive of board.
$35.00 to $40.00
65.00 to 90.00
75.00 to 125.00
30.00 to 40.00
75.00 to 100.00
Rate per month,
exclusive of board.
SlOO.OO to $125.00
•75
5.00
531
532
APPENDIX
MONTANA AND IDAHO. — Conlinued
Animal logging:
Foreman
Stableman
Blacksmith ,
Handy man
Filer
Bull cook
Scaler
Teamster, bookman and sawyer
Swamper and common labor . . . .
Board per week
Foreman
Cook, furnish helper
Stableman
Blacksmith
Handy man
Filer
Flunkey
Bull cook
Clerk
Scaler
Rate per day, exclusive
of board.
$2 . SO to
2.25 to
2.50 to
2.25 to
2.50 to
1.75 to
^.oo to
$3-50
2.50
4.00
4.00
3 25
2.00
3 50
3.00
2.50
5 25
Rate per month ,
inclusive of board.
$75.00 to I
65 . 00 to
35.00 to
65.00 to
45.00 to
30.00 to
30.00 to
45.00 to
65.00 to
5125.00
75.00
65.00
75.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
75 00
75- 00
LAKE STATES, HEMLOCK AND HARDWOOD OPERATIONS,
1911-1912
Chore boy.
Swamper. .
Roadman. .
Cookee . . . .
Sawyer ....
Hookman. .
Teamster. .
Bamman. .
Top loader.
Blacksmith
Cook
Engineer. . .
Rate per month,
including board.
$26.00
26.00
37.00
29.00
30.00
31.00
31.00
32.00
3500
56.00
65.00
73 00
APPENDIX
533
SOUTHERN PINE REGION, TEXAS, 191 1
Power (cableway) logging
Foreman
Skidder leverman
Loading leverman
Top loader
Ground loader
Fireman
Tong hooker
Tong unhooker
Helper
Rigging slinger
Helper
Run cutter
Wood cutter and hauler,
Night watchman
Rate per day, exclusive
of board.
$2.25
4.00
2.75
2.25
2.00
1-75
I-50
2.00
I 50
3.00
2.00
1-75
I SO
I -75
ARKANSAS, 191 2
Animal logging:
Sawyer
Teamster
Ox driver
Swamper
Loading engineer
Top loader
Ground loader
Foreman steel crew
Steel crew spiker
Steel crew labor
Foreman, cutting right-of-way
Right-of-way labor
Locomotive engineer
Locomotive fireman
Scaler
Filer
Bamman
Blacksmith
Camp foreman
Team boss
Rate per day, exclusive
of board.
>2.25
2.00
4.00
$1 .90 to
1.90 to
2. 10
1.90
3.50 to
2.25
1.90
3.60
I. 65
1.60
2.25
I. 65
3.00
1-75
2.2s
3.00
1 .90 to 2. 10
2.25
Rate per month, exclu-
sive of board
$150.00
85.00
CYPRESS REGION, LOUISIANA, 1910
Cableway skidder operation
Skidder leverman
Head rigger
Rigging helper
Skidder fireman
Tong hookes
Helper
Rate
Der day.
exclusive
of board.
$3
50
3
50
I
75
I
50 to
2
00
2
25
I
75
534
APPENDIX
LOUISIANA. — Continued
Cypress logging, cableway skidder operation :
Tong unhooker
Run cutter
Signal man
Loading leverman
Top loader
Ground loader
Slack puller
Rate per day, exclusive
of board.
$1.50
2.00
1-50
2.75
2.25
1 . 75 to 2.00
VERMONT, 191 2
Teamster, 2 horses
Teamster, 4 horses on sled hauls
Head chopper
Cant-dog man
Cook
Rate per month,
including board.
$35.00 to $38.00
40.00 to 45.00
35.00 to 38.00
35.00 to 38.00
Rate per day , including
board.
$1.50 to $2. 25
PROVINCE OF ONTARIO, CANADA, 1911-1912
Rate per month,
including board.
Sawyer $30.00
Teamster
Roller
Sender
Swamper
Notcher
Top loader
Tailer
Scaler
32.00
32.00
30.00
26.00 to 28.00
32.00
32.00
28.00
60.00
PACIFIC COAST, 191 2
Yarding:
Crew boss
Head faller. . . .
Second faller . .
Bucker
Hook tender. . .
Rigging slinger
Rate, exclusive of board.
$125.00 per month
3 . 50 per day
3.25 " "
$3.25 to 3.75 " "
5.00 "
3-50 " "
APPENDIX
535
PACIFIC COAST. — Continued
Yarding:
Choker man. .
Chaser
Signalman. . . .
Head loader. .
Second loader.
Engineer
Fireman
Wood bucker.
Swamper
Sniper
Knotter
Barker
Spool tender. .
Stake maker. .
Railroad grade construction:
Boss
Swamper
Grader
Bucker
Chunk bucker
Faller
Powderman
Hook tender
Rigging slinger
Engineer
Fireman
Miscellaneous:
Landing builder
Landing man
Steel crew boss
Tieman
Rail handler
Bolter
Liner
Spiker
Locomotive engineer.
Locomotive fireman.
Brakeman
Section boss
Section man
Bookkeeper
Head mechanic
Blacksmith
Filer
Scaler
Head cook
Second cook
Bull cook
Flunkey
Rate, exclusive of board.
^3.00 to $3.25 per day
3-25 " "
2.50 " "
4.50 to 5.00 " "
3-50 " "
3-50 " "
2.75 " "
2-75 " "
2.50 "
3.00 "
2-75 " "
2.75 " "
2.75 " "
2-75 " "
125 . 00 per month
2 . 50 per day
2.50 " "
3-25 to
3-75
2.75
3 50
3-5°
4- 50
3-5°
3-25
2-75
4.00
2.50
4.00
2.qO
2-25
2.25 " "
100.00 per month
75.00 "
75.00 "
3 . 50 per day
2.50 " "
100.00 per month
125.00 "
60 . 00 "
60 . 00
75.00 "
100.00 "
7500 "
40 . 00 "
40 . 00 "
STUMPAGE VALUES
I
EASTERN WHITE PINE^
Year.
Michigan.
Wisconsin and
Minnesota.
Price per looo feet
b. m.
$0.25-
■75-
0.50
I .00
■75-
•75-
•75-
•75-
I .00-
I .00
I^25
150
1^50
1^50
I .00-
I 75
I .00-
2.00
I .00-
2.00
i.oo-
2.00
1-25-
2.25
1.25-
1.25-
I-50-
2.00-
2.25
2.50
2.75
3.00
2.00-
3.00
2.00-
3.00
2.00-
3.00
2.00-
2.00-
3 25
3 25
2.00-
3 5°
2.25-
4.00
2.50-
3-50-
3-50-
3.00-
5.00
6.00
6.00
5.00
3.00-
5.00
3.00-
5.00
350-
350-
3 5^
4.00-
6.00
7.00
8.00
8.00
9.00
4.00-
9.00
4.00-
10.00
4.00-
12.00
4.00-
15.00
Q.OO
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
I87I
1872
1873
1874
187s
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
I88I
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
I89I,
1892,
1893
1894,
1895
1896,
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
I90I .
1902.
1903-
1904.
1908.
1910.
$ i.oo-
1.25 per acre
1-25-
1 . 50 per acre
1.50-
1 . 75 per 1000 feet b. m.
2.00-
2.50 " " "
2.00-
2.50 " " "
2.00-
2.50 " " "
2.00-
2.50 " " "
2.00-
2.50 " " "
2.00-
2.50 " " "
2.25-
2.75 " " "
2.25-
2^75 " " "
2.25-
275
2.25-
2.75 " " "
2.50-
3.00 " " "
2^75-
3.00 " " "
3.00-
4.00 " " " "
350-
4.00 " " " "
4.00-
5.00 " "
4.00-
5.00 " " "
4^50-
6.50 " " "
4-50-
6.50 " " "
4^50-
6.50 " "
450-
6.50 " "
450-
6.50 " "
450-
6.50 " " " "
5.00-
7.00 " " " "
6.00-
8.00 " " "
4.00-
7.00 " " " "
4.00-
6.50 " "
4.00-
6.50 " " " "
4.00-
6.50 " " "
6.00-
8.00 " " "
8.00-
10.00 " " " "
8.00-
10.00 " " " "
8.00-
12.00 " " " "
10.00-
15.00 " "
10.00-
16.00 '
10.00-
17.00 " " " "
10.00-
18.00 " " " "
10.00-
20.00 " " " "
Dead and down Indian timber
Indian timber
8.00- 14.00
1 The values for the years 1866-1905 inclusive are taken from the American Lumberman, Chicago,
111., January 6, 1906.
539
540
APPENDIX
EASTERN WHITE PINE TIMBER SOLD BY THE
STATE OF MINNESOTA 1
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
Average price
per 1000 feet.
51.47
1 .62
1-57
1.77
2. II
1-73
2. 19
2-35
2-54
2.18
2.25
2.14
1.89
1.83
1.80
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
Average price
per 1000 feet.
$2.18
2
06
2
52
2
86
2
64
5
17 •
5
93
8
3«
6
02
7
71
7
18
9
00
7
7
83
53
1
i
1 From The Lumber Industr>', Part I, Standing Timber, Department of Commerce and Labor,
Bureau of Corporations, Washington, D.C., 1913, p. 200.
APPENDIX
541
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APPENDIX
545
PARTIAL ESTIMATE, BY STATES, OF THE STANDING
TIMBER IN THE UNITED STATES i
(In billions of board feet)
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Florida
Georgia (part)
Idaho
Louisiana
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri (part)
Montana
Nevada
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
Oklahoma
Oregon
South Carolina (part)
South Dakota
Texas
Utah
Virginia (part)
Washington
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Other states
II
1^
56.3
24
7
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7
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4
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3
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9
65
6
3«
0
I
6
16
4
42
9
545
8
135
8
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7
4
9
66
0
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4
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5
391
0
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6
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1 From The Lumber Industry, Part I, Standing Timber, pp. 66-67, Department of Commerce
and Labor, Bureau of Corporations, igi3.
546
APPENDIX
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INDEX
Abies balsamea, 13.
Abies concolor, 15.
Abies lasiocarpa, 16.
Abies magnifica, 15.
Abies sp., 9.
Abutments for the improvement of stream banks, 360, illustration, 359.
Acer macrophyllum, 19.
Acer rubrum, 19.
Acer saccharinum, 19.
Acer saccharum, 19.
Acid wood, transport in flumes, 394, 400, 410.
Acts, Workmen's Compensation, 51.
Adams, Daniel W., on prevention and control of forest fires, 38, 469.
Adirondack Mountain region, length of logs cut in, 98.
log brands in, 371.
log rule used in, 113.
pulpwood flume in, 398.
rafter dam in, 352.
Aerial tramways, 222, 469.
in the Northwest, 223, 224, 433.
in Tennessee, 222.
in West Virginia, 435.
i^sculus glabra, 23.
Alabama, cars and locomotives used on an operation in, 321.
cost of moving earth in, 262.
crew for logging with bummers, 179.
Alaska, logging methods in, 436.
period of logging in, 436.
price of lumber, average retail, 438.
Alder, resistance of wood in cross-cut sawing, 76.
Allen, Edward T., on the western hemlock, 10, 23, 472.
Allen, E. W., on the feeding of farm animals, 133, 134, 135, 137, 469,
Alligator for towing logs across a lake, 377, 379.
American log loader, Model "C," 325.
Model "D," 326.
American Lumberman, 8, 247, 264, 478.
Angle bars for steel rails, 288, 289, illustration, 288.
Animal power, for headworks, 377.
for power logging, 206, 207.
Animals, barns for, 59, 64.
corrals for, 66.
decking logs with, 141.
drumming, 150.
feeding stuff's for, feeding value of, 134, 135.
feeding standards, 133.
hand logging with, 146.
hauling, bummers, 179, 180.
cars, 245.
carts, 184.
sleds, 158, 172.
snow plows, 168.
547
548 INDEX
Animals, hauling, sprinkler, 169.
wagons, 187, 188, 190, 191.
horses, 131, 184.
loading log cars by, 143, 322.
loading portable houses by, 63.
log cars, loading by, 143.
log hauler, steam, number of horses equivalent to, 177.
logging with, Colorado, 423.
Lake States, 426.
New England, 420.
Northeast, 425.
portable mill operations, 420, 423.
South, 428.
West Virginia, 434, 435.
logs, decking with, 141.
mules, 131, 184.
output per team, skidding, 154.
oxen, 129.
picking rear with, 377.
pole roads, hauling cars on, 245.
rations for, 132.
slide transport with, 237, 239.
snaking with, 146.
stables for, 59.
stringer roads, hauling cars on, 245.
transport of tanbark with, 461, 465.
trips, daily, hauling two-sleds, 172.
uses for, in logging, 129.
water for, 138.
Appalachians, a log sorting device used in the, 366.
cost of harvesting tanbark in, 463.
drumming, 150.
gates used in logging dams in, 357, 358.
hand logging in, 145.
labor, 48.
log marks and brands used in, 371.
season in which logs are transported by water, 368.
snaking with animals in, 148.
stringer railroads in, 245.
stumpage values in, 20.
use of cableway skidders in, 203.
use of chutes in, 236.
use of slides in, 230.
Appendix, 467.
Arkansas, bummers used in, 178, 180.
railroad spur grade in, 260, illustration, 260.
wage list, 533.
Ash, floating ability of, 374.
lumber cut, 1910, 22.
markets for, 22.
stand per acre, 22.
stumpage value of, 22.
uses of, 22.
Ashe, W. W., on chestnut oak in the Appalachians, 23.
on white oak in the southern Appalachians, 24.
Aspen, resistance of wood in cross-cut sawing, 76.
Associations, fire protective, 35.
Atkins, E. C. and Company, on saw-fitting, 77.
Ax, broadax, 73.
cost of, 73.
INDEX 549
Ax, felling, 72, 189.
felling timber with, 93, 421, 424, 428, 430.
illustration, 73.
turpentine, 73.
Babb, C. C, on log driving and lumbering, 393, 477.
Back spiking a railroad track, 293.
Bag-boom, 382.
Balsam, floating ability of, 374.
Bank, breaking down a, 375.
Banking grounds, 375.
Baptist cone, 212.
Baptist, William, inventor of a system of power logging, 196.
Barge boom, 363.
Barge, log, 392.
Bark, chestnut oak, 463.
hemlock, 435, 459.
tanbark oak, 464.
Bark mark, 370.
Barking or rossing, 104.
Barnhart log loader, 323.
Barns, board, 64.
car, 64, illustration, 65.
cost of, 64, 66.
log, 59-
tent, 64.
Barrel and Box, 478.
Barrows, H. K., on log driving and lumbering, 393, 477.
Bartrell, E. E.. on questions of law encountered in timber bond issues, 44, 476.
Basswood, 18.
floating ability of, 373, 374.
lumber cut, 1910, 21.
markets for, 21.
stumpage value of, 21.
uses of, 21.
Bateaux, 374, 379.
Berry, E. J., on the use of electricity in logging, 221, 475.
Berry, Swift, on the management of redwood lands, 472.
Betts, H. S., on California tanbark oak, 466, 476.
on properties and uses of southern pine, 23.
Betula lenta, 20.
Betula lutea, 20.
Betula papyri fera, 20.
Bibliography, 467.
Big Sandy River, rafting on, 383.
Birch, associated species of, 13, 20.
floating abihty of, 373, 374.
lumber cut, 1910, 21.
markets for, 20.
paper, 20.
per cent of logs lost on drives, 345.
preparation for floating, 373.
resistance of wood in cross-cut sawing, 76.
stand per acre, 20.
stumpage value of, 21.
sweet, 20.
uses of, 20, 21.
yellow, 20.
Blacksmith shop, tools required for a camp, 60.
55° INDEX
Blasting rock, drilling, 269.
electric fuse, 274.
explosives, 271, 275.
loading holes for, 272.
primers and priming for, 273.
safety fuse and caps for, 273.
tamping, 274.
Blasting stumps, 276.
Blodgett or New Hampshire log rule, 113, 520.
Bob, 158.
Boisen, Anton T., on the commercial hickories, 23, 471.
Bole, factors governing the amount utilized, 96.
Bonds, timber, 39.
character of, 39.
floating an issue of, 42.
sinking fund for, 41.
Boom, 360.
bag or sack, 382.
barge, 363.
bracket, 361, 365.
catch, 377.
chain, 361, illustration, 361.
fin, 362, illustration, 362.
harbor, 389.
limber, 360, 361.
on large streams, 379.
plug, 361.
round, 389.
sheep-shank, 360, 361.
sheer, 360.
storage, 364, 365.
cribs for holding a, 364, illustration, 363.
towing, 367.
trap, 377.
Boom companies, 369, 381.
Canada, 369, 381, 384.
liability of, 369.
Northeast, 425.
Boom sticks, 364.
Booming logs in the Northwest, cost of, 434.
Bottom, logging, cypress region, 430.
Lake States, 426.
Northeast, 424.
Northwest, 432.
Southern pine, 428.
West Virginia, 435.
Box, flume and log sluice, 396.
lumber and nails required to construct, 409, 412, 413.
turpentine, chipping, 445.
cornering, 445.
cutting, 444.
dipping, 447.
Bracket boom, 361, 365.
Bracket or needle gate for a logging dam, 357.
Bradfield, Wesley, on the amount of standing timber in woodlots, 475.
Brands, log, 370, 371.
dehorning, 372.
legal status of, 372.
Brands, log, recording, 372.
validity of, in Minnesota, 372.
INDEX 551
Braniflf, E. A., on grades and amounts of lumber sawed from hardwoods, 105.
on scientific management and the lumber business, 470.
on timber bonds, 44, 476.
Breakage in felling logs, 90, 104.
Bridges for sled roads, 166.
Bridges, J. B., on laws governing the use of streams for log driving, 393, 478.
British Columbia, hand logging in, 146.
Broad-gauge railroad, cars for, 315.
Bruce, Eugene S., on a forest working plan for Township 40, 471.
Brush, broadcast burning. Northwest, 28.
South, 28.
piling and burning. Lake States, 27.
scattering. Southwest, 26.
top lopping, New York, 26.
Brush burning, cost of, 28.
hardwood. Lake States, 28.
Brush disposal, cost of, 27, 28, 422, 423, 437.
on small operations, Alaska, 437.
on small operations, Colorado, 422.
Brutting, 145.
Bryant, R. C, on waste in cutting southern pine, loi, 105, 477.
Buckeye, 23.
Bucking up timber. Northwest, 91, 99, 434.
Bummer, 178, 428, illustration, 178.
Bundles, rafts, 367, 387.
Bunks, log camps, 58, 66.
log cars, 317, 318, 320.
Butters, Horace, first patentee of power skidding machinery, 196.
Butt rot, 124.
Byrkit, G. M., on a machine for taking up railroad track, 296, 473.
Bryne, Austin T., on highway construction 256, 296, 473.
Cable, adjustment on steel-spar cableway skidder, 197.
aerial tramway, 222, 223, 224.
changing from one run to another, power logging, 202, 211.
extension, for a cableway skidder, 202.
incline, 297,, 298, 299, 300, 302.
loading, 202, 329, 331.
main, for cableway skidder, 196, 201.
messenger, 214.
outhaul, for a cableway skidder, 198.
skidding, for a snaking machine, 205.
slack-rope system, 208, 211, 214.
spotting, for a snaking machine, 205.
road engine, 218.
j^arding engine, 214, 215, 217.
Cableway system, power skidding, 196.
capacity, 203, 204, 431.
conditions to which it is adapted, 202.
cost of operation, 203, 204.
cost of repairs, 431.
crew for operation, 203, 204.
cutting runs for, 201.
cypress region, 430, 431.
head spar trees for, 196, 197.
illustrations, 197, 198, 199, 201.
loading logs with, 202.
logging radius, 201, 204.
method of operation, 199, 200.
* Northeast, 203, 424.
55^ INDEX
Cablewaj' sj'stem, power skidding, Northwest, 204, 432.
power for operating, igg.
regions in which used, 203, 204, 424, 427, 428.
slack puller for, iqq, 200.
southern yellow pine, 428.
tail trees for, 196, 197.
trolleys for. 198.
unloading log cars with, 334.
. West Mrginia, 435.
California, aerial tramways used in, 228.
fliunes, cost of, 409.
flumes, lumber, used in, 399, 409.
har\-esting tanbark oak in, 464.
log car unloading device used in, 339.
log truck used in, 187.
logging with wheeled vehicles in, 178, 181, 185.
stumpage values in, 8, 11, 15.
towing log rafts to, 391.
traction engine for logging in, 192.
Camp, blacksmith shop, 60, 61.
barns, 64.
bimkhouse, 58, 61.
car, 66.
construction, 57, 63.
cook shant}-, 58, 61, 62.
furniture, 58.
hygiene, 70.
labor, kitchen, 68.
location, 56.
rations, 69.
sites, 56.
store, 58, 61, 62.
storehouse, 59, 61.
Camps, board, 61.
boarding department of, 67.
character and cost of, Northeast, 58, 61, 424, 425.
cooking equipment for northern, 68.
cj'press, 66, 430.
depreciation of, Colorado, 423.
feeding men in, cost of, 69.
floating, 66, illustration, 67.
hauling supplies to, 69.
Lake States, 426.
log, 57, illustrations, 59, 60.
log drive, 375.
medical care in, 70, 71.
Northwest, 432.
portable house. 61, illustration, 62.
small logging operations in, Colorado, 421.
southern pine region, 61, 428.
stables for, 59, 61 {see barns).
types of. 57.
West Virginia, 434.
Canada, log carrier used in, 359.
log drive in New Brunswick, 381.
log driving company in New Brunswick, 369.
log sorting device used in, 366.
rafter dam used in, 352.
rafting logs in. 384.
Canada Lumberman and Woodworker, 369, 478.
INDEX 553
Canals, pullboat logging, 208.
Cant hook, 85, 189, illustration, 85.
Car camp, 66.
Carriers, log, 358.
Cars, animal draft, for hauling earth, 267.
box, 320.
broad-gauge railroad, 315.
caboose, 320.
capacity of, 315, 317, 318, 319.
chains for, 316.
flat, 315, 320, 321.
frictional resistance of, 311.
loading logs on, by cross-haul, 322.
by power loaders, 322.
by special devices, 329.
logging trucks, 318, illustration, 319.
mules, 320.
narrow-gauge, 315.
number required for a logging operation, 319.
pole tram road, 244, 245.
skeleton, 317, 320, illustration, 317.
stakes for, 315, 316, 334.
stringer railroad, 247.
unloading log, 332.
water tank, 320.
Carter, A. M., on boom areas, 365.
Carts, log, 180.
capacity of, 185.
cost of, 1S5.
high-wheeled, Lake States, 184, 426.
Southern yellow pine, 182, 428.
illustrations, 180, 181, 183.
in California, 182, 185.
mule, 1S5.
roads for. Lake States, 184.
Northwest, 184.
slip tongue, 183, illustration, 183.
two-wheeled dump, for moving earth, 265.
Cary, Austin, ^lanual for Northern Woodsmen, 112, 126, 470, 474.
on influence of lumbering upon forestr>', 470.
on practical forestry on a spruce tract in Maine, 105, 471, 477.
Caterpillar gasoline tractor, 195.
Cat-face, 124.
Cedar, incense, 8, 14, 15.
Port Orford, 14.
Cedars, western, associated species of, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14.
lumber cut, 1910, 15.
markets, 14.
stand of timber, 4.
stumpage value of, 14, 15.
uses of, 14.
white, floating ability of, 374.
Chain boom, 361.
Chains, equipment for a log wagon, 189.
for log cars, 316, 317, 318.
for sleds, 171.
Chamaec\T)aris lawsoniana, 14.
Chamsecyparis nootkatensis, 14.
Chamaec\T)aris thyoides, 145.
Channels, artificial, for improving stream beds, 360, illustration, 360.
554 INDEX
Chapman, C. S., on a working plan for forest lands in South Carolina, 472.
Chapman, H. H., on an experiment in logging longleaf pine, 472.
on prolonging the cut of southern pine, loi, 105.
Checks, 125.
spiral, 125.
Cherr>', 23.
floating ability of, 374.
Chestnut, 18, 20.
floating ability of, 374.
lumber cut, 1910, 20.
manufacture of tannin extract from wood of, 459.
markets, 20.
stand per acre, 20.
stumpage value of, 20, 418.
uses of, 20.
Chipping boxes, turpentine orcharding, 445, 452.
Chittenden, Alfred K., on forest conditions in northern New Hampshire, 471.
on the red gum, 2^, 471.
Chock blocks for log cars, 316, 317.
Chokers, 150, 215, 216.
Chutes, 149.
cost of, 241.
curves, 238.
grades, 236.
Northeast, 425.
Northwest, 433.
pole, 233.
timber, 230, 235.
Clapp, Earle H., on conversative logging, 105, 477.
Clark, A. W., on overcoming grades too steep for locomotives, 303, 473.
Clark, Judson F., on the measurement of saw logs, 126, 474.
Clark's International log rule, 109, 513.
Climax geared locomotive, 306, illustration, 306.
Coastal Plain region, animal logging in, 148.
carts for logging in, 180.
hand logging in, 145.
mule carts used in, 185.
power logging in, 196.
rafting logs in, 387.
Cole, C. O., on electric log haulage, 221, 475.
Colorado, portable mill operations in, 421.
stumpage values in, 8.
Columbia River, building ocean rafts on, 390.
rafting logs on, 368, 390.
Commissary, camp, 49, 62, 66, 67.
Cone, Baptist, for pullboat logging, 212.
Connecticut, estimating timber in, 418.
logging methods in, 419, 420.
stumpage values in, 20, 418.
Connecticut River, log drive on, 379, 380.
Contract labor, 49.
Contract prices for skidding and hauling yellow pine, 192.
Cooper, Albert W., on sugar pine and western yellow pine in California, 472,
Coppice, best season for cutting, 88.
Cord, forest products measured by the, 117.
influence of the degree of dryness of wood on cubic contents of a, 116.
ratio between cords and standards, 112.
relation between, diameter of stick and the solid cubic feet in a cord, 115.
form of sticks and solid cubic contents in a cord, 116.
Cord, relation between stick length and volume of wood in a cord, 115.
1
INDEX 555
Cord measure, 114.
Corduroy, for logging railroads, 284, illustration, 285.
tor sled roads, 165.
Cordwood, cutting and piling, Connecticut, 419, 420.
transport in flumes, 394, 400.
Cornering boxes, turpentine orcharding, 445.
Corrals for animals in camp, 66.
Cost, camps, small logging operations, 421.
clearing a railroad right-of-way, 258, 259.
construction, flumes, 398, 408, 409.
inclines, 298.
log dump for unloading log cars, 336.
logging canals, 208.
pole tram road, 244.
railroad, 295.
railroads built on piling, 281.
skid road for a road engine, 220.
stringer railroad, 247.
timber shdes and chutes, 241.
trestle construction, 282.
cribwork, 284.
crossties, 286.
cutting and piling cordwood, 420.
dams, for logging operations, 351, 352.
dunnage or dust railroad, 284.
felling timber, Alaska, 437.
Colorado, 421, 422.
Connecticut, 419.
cjqaress, 91, 431.
Lake States, 427.
Northwest, 91, 434.
southern yellow pine, 91, 429.
West Virginia, 436.
flat cars, 315.
fuel for locomotives, 312.
harvesting tanbark, chestnut oak, 463.
hemlock, 461.
hauling logs on a pole tram road, 245.
loading iog cars with a crosshaul, 322.
locomotives, 308, 309.
log driving, 380, 381.
Connecticut River, 380.
Penobscot River, 380.
St. John River, 381.
Restigouche River, 381.
logging, 203, 204, 207.
Alaska, 437.
Colorado, 423.
cypress, 431.
Lake States, 427.
New England, 420.
Northeast, 158, 420, 425.
Northwest, 433, 434.
southern yellow pine region, 429.
West Virginia, 436.
moving earth and rock, 262-268.
oil and waste, locomotive operation, 314.
operation, flumes, 411.
inclines, 303.
power log loaders, 328.
556
INDEX
Cost, pole cutting and peeling, Connecticut, 419.
power log loaders, 325 - 328.
rafting, 390, 391.
steel laying and removal, 290, 292.
surfacing a railroad grade, 295.
yarding engines, 214.
Northwest, 433, 434.
Cottonwood, 18.
cross-cut saws for cutting, 75.
lumber cut, 1910, 23.
stumpage, value of, 2^.
uses of, 23.
Crew, backspiking a railroad track, 293.
bark peeling, 435, 460, 461, 464.
construction, flume in Washington, 407,
logging dam, Idaho, ^s^-
ocean-going rafts, 391.
cutting a railroad right-of-way, 257.
felling and log making, Colorado, 421.
floating and rafting logs, 375, 379.
loading log cars, :^22.
log drive, Connecticut River, 379.
Penobscot River, 3S0.
logging operations, Connecticut, 419.
cj-press, 430.
Northeast, 424, 425.
Northwest, 432, 433.
West \'irginia, 435.
operation, cableway skidder, 203, 204.
flume, 410.
pullboat, 212, 213.
road engine, 219.
snaking system, 206, 207.
yarding engine, 215.
rafting logs, Puget Sound, 391.
rigging, cableway skidder, 202.
sorting gap, 366.
steel laying and removal, 290, 292, 293.
surfacing a railroad grade, 295.
Crews, log driving, on large streams, 379. 380.
Cribs for storage booms, 364, illustration, 363.
Cribwork for a logging railroad, 284.
Crook in logs, 96, loi. 125.
Crops, turpentine orchard, size of. 443.
yield of, 457.
Crosshaul, decking logs with a, 141.
gin-pole, a modification of the, 329.
loading log cars by, 322, 330.
sleds b}', 171.
wagons b}', 190.
Crossties, 286, 289.
logging, Connecticut, 419.
stumpage value of, Connecticut, 418.
transport in flumes, 394, 405, 409.
Crotch in logs, 125.
sled, 155.
Cubic feet stacked in logs of given dimensions, 522.
Cubic measure, 114, 521, 522.
volume of solid wood in stacks, 521.
per 128 cubic feet of space, 521.
I
INDEX 557
Cucumber, 23.
floating ability of, 374.
Culverts for logging railroads, 285, illustration, 279.
Cumberland River log drives, per cent of logs lost on, 345.
Cummings, W. J., on security in timber bonds, 44, 476.
Cup systems, turpentine orcharding, 449.
Gilmer-McCall, 454.
Herty's cup and gutter, 449.
McKoy, 453.
Curves, flume, 395, 405.
railroad, 252, 254, 256.
slide, 238.
Cuts and fills, 259 {see also fills and cuts).
Cutting areas, timber felling, 91.
Cypress, blasting stumps of, 277.
cross-cut saws for cutting, 75.
deadening, 89.
floating ability of, 374.
girdling (^ee deadening),
insect damage to, 89.
log lengths, 97.
lumber cut, 1910, 12.
stand per acre, 12.
stand, total in the United States, 4.
stumpage value of, 12.
uses of, 12.
yellow, associated species of, 14, 17.
stand per acre, 14.
stumpage value of, 14.
uses of, 14.
Cypress region, camps, 66, 67, 430.
capacity of cableway skidder in, 203, 431,
character of bottom, 430.
cost of operation, 431.
dunnage or dust railroad, 283.
felling and log-making, 430.
hand logging, 145, 430.
labor, 47, 430.
Louisiana, wage list, 533, 534.
power skidding, 196, 203, 208, 430.
preparation of logs for pullboating, 211.
pullboat logging in, 208, 430.
rafting in, 387.
railroads built on piling, 280.
season of logging, 89, 430.
skidding, 430.
transport, 431.
Dsedalia, 12.
Daedalia vorax, 15.
Dams, logging, character of, 349.
concrete, 349.
construction of, 350, 352, 353.
cost of, 351.
crib, 350.
pile, 353-
rafter or self-loading, 352, illustration, 353, 354.
sites for, 348.
Dana, S. T., on the paper birch in the Northeast, 23, 471.
Deadening timber, 89.
cost, cypress, 431.
558 INDEX
Decker log loader, 326.
Decking logs, 141.
Defebaugh, J. E., on the historj- of the lumber industry in America, 470.
Defects, log, 96, loi, 103, 121.
butt rot, 124.
cat-face, 124.
checks and seams, 125.
circular shake, 123.
crook or sweep, 125.
crotches, 125.
pin-dote, 124.
punk knots, 124.
rafting pin holes, 125.
rotten sap, 125.
seams, 125.
spiral checks, 125.
stained sap, 125.
stump or butt rot, 1 24.
sweep, 125.
uniform center or circular rot, 121.
Depreciation, logging equipment. Northwest, 434.
Dipping, turpentine orcharding, 447, 452.
yield, 447.
Distillation, crude turpentine, 455.
cost of a plant for, 457.
grades of rosin produced, 457.
labor, 456.
method, 456.
retorts for, 455.
strainers, 455.
yield, 457.
Dog-warp, use in breaking log jams in streams, 377.
Dogs, logging, 216.
Douglas fir, {see fir, Douglas).
Do\'le log rule, no, 517.
Doj-le-Scribner log rule, in.
Draft power, animal, 129.
horses, 131.
mules, 131.
oxen, 129.
Drift, turpentine orchard, size of, 443.
Drill, churn, 269.
hand, 27c.
jumper, 270.
Drilling for blasting purposes, 269.
Drive, log, an alligator for towing logs on a, 377.
boom companies, 369.
conduct of a, 368, 378.
Connecticut River, 379.
cost of, 378, 380, 381.
floating and rafting logs, 343.
headworks for towing logs, 377.
improvement of the stream bed and banks, 359.
labor, 374.
log carriers used in Canada, 359.
log jams, 377.
Penobscot River, 380.
Drive, log, picking rear, 377.
requirements for a drivable stream, 347.
St. John River, New Brunswick, 381, 384.
INDEX 559
Drive, log, season, 368, 379, 380.
sorting and storage facilities for a, 363.
storage reservoirs for water, 348.
streams, large, 379.
streams, small, 374, 375.
trap or catch booms used in towing logs, 377.
union, 369.
West Virginia, 436.
Drivers, log, 374.
Drumming, 150.
Dudler {see Dudley).
Dudley, character of, 301.
operation of, 221, 302, 303.
Dump, log, 334, 432, illustrations, 3^6, 337-
Dunnage or dust railroad, 283, illustration, 283.
Dynamite, blasting stumps with, 276.
"breaking down" landings with, 376.
caps for firing, 273.
care of, 272.
character of, 272.
electric fuse for firing, 274.
improvement of stream bed with, 359.
loosening earth with, 264.
"springing" holes with, 275.
strength of, 271.
Earle, Robert T., on the gypsy locomotive for logging purposes, 321, 474.
Earth, classification of, for excavation, 261.
cost of moving, 262.
"free haul" in grading contracts, 261.
hauhng in, cars, animal draft, 267.
dump carts, 265.
dump wagons, 265.
drag scrapers, 266.
wheeled scrapers, 266.
increase in bulk of material disturbed for removal, 262.
loosening earth with dynamite, 264.
measurement of, 260.
movement of, 260, 262.
moving with a steam shovel, 268.
pick work in, 263.
plowing, 263.
shrinkage in volume in an embankment of, 262.
wheelbarrow work, 264.
Eckbo, Nels B., on redwood logging, 472.
Electric drive, 35.
Electric fuse for firing dynamite, 274.
Ellis, L. R., on topographic mapping for logging purposes, 256, 474.
Elm, 18.
floating ability, 374.
lumber cut, 1910, 22.
stumpage value, 22.
uses, 22.
Eminent Domain, right of, for a logging railroad, 250.
Endless chain saw, 79.
Engine, aerial tramway, 223, 228.
dudley, 221, 301.
Engine, duplex logging, 217.
road,_2i3, 218, 432, 433.
traction, caterpillar gasoline, 195.
560 INDEX
Engine, traction for hauling log wagons, 188.
four-wheeled, 192.
Holt three-wheeled, 193.
yarding, 213, 432.
Engineer Field Manual, 296, 321, 469, 473, 474.
Engineer's Hand Book, 473.
Equipment, railroad, roUing stock and motive power, 319.
snaking, 150, illustration, 151.
sorting logs, 365.
jack, 365.
Estimate, partial, of the standing timber in the United States, 545.
Estimating timber, woodlots, Connecticut, 418.
Evans, \V. P.. on the Mallet Articulated Locomotive, 321, 474.
Evenson, O. J., on a log-loading system, 339, 473.
Expense, general, logging operations, c%-press, 431.
southern yellow pine, 429.
sales. Northwest, 434.
West \'irginia, 436.
Explosives, for hard rock, 271.
for soft rock, 271.
high, 271.
low, 275.
Extract, tanning, chestnut wood, 459.
quebracho wood, 459.
Faggots, use of, 95.
Fagus americana, 20.
Fall of a tree, determining the direction of, 89.
Fankhauser, Dr., on log slides in the Alps, 475.
Fantailing, pullboat logging, 208, 210.
advantages of, 210.
illustration, 209.
roads, cost of, 210.
location of, 210.
Farquhar, Henry H., on mountain logging in West Virginia, 434, 472.
Fastabend, John A., on ocean log rafting, 393, 478.
Feed, cost of. southern pine region, 429.
Feeding standards. WolfF-Lehmann, 133.
Feeding stuffs, dr>' matter and digestible food ingredients in, 134, 135.
Fees for catching runaway logs, 346, 383.
Felling ax, 72.
Felling timber, breakage in, 90.
cost of, 91, 419, 421, 423, 427, 429-431, 434, 436, 437.
crews for, 90.
cutting areas, 91.
direction of fall, 89.
kerosene, use of, 86, 100.
kilhig or Sampson, 83.
methods, 206, 421, 423, 424, 426, 428, 430, 432, 435.
ax, 93.
ax and saw, 93.
notching, 92.
power-driven machines for, 78.
season, 87, 88, 421, 424, 426, 427, 430, 431, 434, 436.
spring boards, 83.
wedges. 81.
Femow, Bemhard Eduard, on effect of turpentine orcharding on the timber of
longleaf pine, 458, 476.
Fills and cuts, 259.
ratio of slope, 259.
INDEX 561
Fills and cuts, width of, 259.
Fin boom, 361, 362, illustration, 362.
Fir, alpine, 16, 17.
Douglas, associated species, 8, 10, 11, 14- 16.
cross-cut saws for cutting, 75.
floating ability of, 374.
log grading rules for, 527.
log lengths, 98, 120.
lumber cut, 1910, 6.
markets, 6.
stand per acre, 6.
stand, total, in the United States, 4.
stumpage value of, 6.
uses of, 6.
silver, resistance of wood in cross-cut sawing, 76.
western, 4.
associated species of, 8, 9, 14, 15, 16.
Fires, forest, 25.
crown, 25.
ground, 25.
surface, 25.
Fisher, Richard T., on the redwood, 23.
Fish plates, 288, 289, illustration, 288.
Plat cars for logging purposes, 315, 320, 321.
Floating camps, 57, 66.
Floating, logs, 343, 425, 43^, 432.
Floating and rafting logs, Alaska, 437.
cypress, 431.
log sluices, 400.
loss from, 345, 429.
Northeast, 376, 425.
Northwest, 432.
uncommon in the South, 428.
West Virginia, 436.
Floods, loss of logs from, 345, 346.
Florida, stumpage values in, 541.
Flume, 394, 477.
Allen, in Montana, 404.
amount of material required to construct a, 408, 409, 411, 413.
amount of water required for operation, 410.
backbone for a, 396, 398.
box, 390, 411, illustration, 397.
capacity of a, 398, 400, 411 -413.
clamps for fastening boards, when made into bundles, 400.
construction of a, 398 - 400, 405, 408, 409, 412, 413.
curves for a, 395, 398, 405.
disadvantages of transport in a, 394.
grades for a, 398-400, 405, 409, 412, 413.
location of a, 395.
Northeast, 425.
Northwest, 433.
operation of a, 410, 412.
terminals for a, 404, 405, illustrations, 404, 406.
trestles for a, 400, 401, 405, 407, 408, 412, 413, illustrations, 402, 403.
type of box for a, 396.
V-box, 396, 398, 405, 409, 411, 413, illustrations, 397, 399.
Foley, John, on lumbering in Tennessee, 471.
Force, tractive, of locomotives, 309, 310.
Fore-and-aft roads, 233, 234.
Forest, Deerlodge National, the Allen flume in, 404.
562 INDEX
Forest, Minnesota National, brush burning in, 28.
Pike National, stand of timber in, 17.
Sopris National, stand of timber in, 17.
Tongass National, 17.
Forest area, 3.
Forest fires, 25.
Forest labor, 47.
Forest protection, 25, 469.
Forest regions, natural, of the United States, 3, illustration, frontispiece.
Forest types, 3.
Forests, National, log rule used in, no.
logging in Colorado, 421.
merchantable timber in, 4, 545.
rule for measuring length of long logs when scaling in, 1 20.
rule regulating stump heights in, 95.
stumpage values in, 6, 8, 14, 16, 17.
private, merchantable timber in, 4, 545.
Forest Service, United States, 26, 27, 122.
Forked trees, waste in log-making, loi.
Forster, G. R., on transport of forest products, 229, 241, 469, 475.
Foster, H. D., on the chestnut oak in the Appalachians, 23.
Foster, J. H., on forest conditions in Louisiana, 472.
Fox, William F., on lumbering in New York, 471.
Fraxinus americana, 22.
Fraxinus nigra, 22.
Frog for a logging railroad, 290.
Frothingham, E. H., on the aspens, 472.
on the Douglas fir, 23.
on second-growth hardwoods in Connecticut, 418, 471.
Fuel, coal. 193, 194, 313, 314.
cost, southern pine region, 429.
for logging locomotives, 312-314.
a pullboat, 213.
traction engine, 193 - 195.
yarding engine, 217.
wood, 193, 194, 213, 312, 314.
Fuel oil, 34, 19s, 217, 313, 314.
Fungi, damage to timber by, 88.
Fuse, electric, for firing dynamite, 274.
Gap, sorting, 365, 379.
Gate, sluice, for a logging dam, 354.
barn-door, 358.
bear-trap, 354.
half-moon, 357.
lift, 354-
needle or bracket, 357.
Gates, log flumes, 412.
Gauge, inclines, 301.
narrow-, 246, 247, 249.
railroad, choice of, 249.
sled, 157, 159, 17s,
standard-, 250.
Gayer, Karl, on forest utilization, 76, 229, 241, 469, 470, 475.
Geared locomotives, 305.
advantages of, 305.
center-shaft, 306.
Climax, 306.
hauling abihty of, 312.
Heisler, 306, 307, 321.
INDEX 563
Geared locomotives, Shay, 305, 308, 320, 321.
Georgia, stumpage values in, 541.
Gerrish, Scott, first builder of a steel-rail logging railroad, 247.
Gillette, H. P., on cost data, 270, 276, 296, 473.
on earthwork, and its cost, 256, 263 - 268, 296, 473.
Gin-pole, loading log cars with a, .329, 432.
Girdling timber, 89.
Glover, Geo. T., inventor of first steam log hauler, 172.
Gobel Cube log rule, 113.
Go-devil, 155, 426, illustration, 155.
Goose-neck or scotch, 240.
Grabs, logging, 153, 216, illustration, 151.
Grades, flume, 394, 395, 398, 399, 405, 409, 411, 413.
incline, 297, 298, 300, 302.
lumber, per cent of, manufactured from Sitka spruce, 437.
railroad, 246, 252, 254.
resistance to gravity on, 310.
Grading, logging railroads, 259.
cost of moving earth and rock, 262.
Grading rules, log, for Douglas fir, 527.
for hardwood, 525.
Grapples, timber, 377.
Graves, Henry S., on forest mensuration, 126, 474.
forest protection. 38, 469.
handling woodlands, 38, 469.
practical forestry in the Adirondacks, 105.
recent log rules, 474.
Woodsman's Handbook, 126, 474.
Gravity, resistance of the load to, on a logging railroad, 310.
Great Lakes, booms used in towing logs on, 382.
log barges on, 392.
season for transporting logs on, 368.
towing logs on, 367.
Greeley, W. B., on the white oak in the Appalachians, 24.
Greenamyre, H. H., on lumbering in Colorado, 472.
Grimmer, G. Scott., on log driving operations, Canada, 369.
Guards, cattle, on a logging railroad, 286.
Gum, red, 18, 19.
floating ability of, 374.
lumber cut, 1910, 19.
markets, 19.
stand per acre, 19.
stumpage value of, 19.
uses of, 19.
Gumbo, loosening with dynamite on a railroad grade, 264.
Half-moon gate for a logging dam, 357.
Hall, William L., on the uses of commercial woods of the United States, 24, 470.
Hallett, W. E. S., on lumbering cottonwood in Nebraska, 472.
Hamel, G., on logging in Wisconsin, 471.
Handle, ax, 73, 74.
cant hook, 85.
maul, 83.
peavey, 84.
pickaroon, 86.
saw, 74.
Hand logging, 145.
Hand logging, Alaska, 436.
Appalachians, 145.
British Columbia, 146.
564 INDEX
Hand logging, Coastal Plain region, 145.
c>T)ress, 145, 430.
Pacific Coast, 145.
Hardwood, damage by fungi, 88, 344.
damage by insects, 87, 89, 344.
floating ability of, 373, 374.
log lengths, 97.
loss in water transport, 344, 345.
preparation for floating, 373.
season for felling, 87, 88.
strength of, influence of cutting season on, 88.
Hardwood log grading rules, 525.
Hardwood logging with wagons, Mississippi River bottoms, 188.
Hardwood Record, 478.
Harp, C. A., on the gasoUne locomotive for logging roads, 321, 474.
Hatt, W. Kendrick., on the red gum, 2t,.
Hauling, 140, 155, 178, 218, 242, 420, 423, 425, 427, 428, 431, 432, 435.
number of daily trips of given length, sleds, 172.
wagons, 192.
organization of crews, wagon haul, 191.
with a, cart, 180.
road engine. Pacific Coast, 218.
sled, 167, 170, 420, 422, 423, 425, 427.
steam log hauler, 172.
traction engine, 192.
wagon, 190.
Hauling ability of locomotives, 309, 311, 312.
Hawes, A. F., on forestry in New England. 471.
Hawley, R. C, on forestry in New England, 471.
Head spar, cableway skidder, 196, 197.
method of bracing a, 198.
steel, 197.
Headworks, for towing logs, 377, 379, illustration, 378.
Hedgecock, George Grant, on fungi which discolor wood, 105, 470.
Heisler geared locomotive, 307, 321, illustration, 308.
Hemlock, eastern, associated species of, 10, 13.
bark, thickness of, 462.
weight per square foot, 463.
j'ield per thousand board feet, 462.
crew for bark peeling, 460.
cross-cut saws for cutting, 75.
floating ability of, 374.
lumber cut, 19 10, 10.
per cent of tannin in bark of, 459.
season for bark peeling, 435, 459.
stumpage value of, 10.
stand per acre, 10.
stand, total, in the United States, 4.
uses of, 10.
western, associated species of, 10, 11, 14.
bark, per cent of tannin in, 459.
use for tanning, 459.
lumber cut, 1910, 10.
markets, 10.
stand per acre, 10.
stand, total, in the United .States, 4.
stumpage value of, 10.
Hemlock, western, uses of, 10.
Henry, H. P., on topographic surveys and logging plans, 256, 474.
Hercules log unloader, 338.
INDEX 565
Herring or Beaumont log rule, 112.
Herty, Charles Holmes., on anew method of turpentine orcharding, 452, 476.
on light chipping, turpentine orcharding, 445, 476.
on results of the cup and gutter system, 476.
patentee, 449.
Herty's cup and gutter system, turpentine orcharding, 449.
Hickory, 18.
floating ability of, 374.
lumber cut, 1910, 22.
stand per acre, 21.
stumpage value of, 22.
uses of, 21, 22.
Hicoria alba, 21.
Hicoria glabra, 21.
Hicoria laciniosa, 21.
Hicoria ovata, 21.
Hine, Thomas \V., on duplex logging engine, 221, 475.
Hoffman, Bruce E., on Sitka spruce of Alaska, 24, 436, 472.
Holes, for stump blasting, 276.
loading with dynamite, 272.
"springing," 275.
Holland log rule, in.
Holmes, J. S., on disposal of brush in National Forests, 38.
Holt three- wheeled traction engine, 193.
Homans, G. M., on the standing timber owned by the Federal Government, 475.
Hooks, use in slide operation, 239.
Hopkins, A. D., on pin-hole injury to girdled c>'press, 89, 106, 470.
on waste and reduction of timber supplies caused by insects, 470.
Horses, advantages of, as draft animals for logging, 131.
daily output when snaking logs, 154, 420.
hauling log carts, 184, 185.
hauling log wagons, 187, 191.
miles traveled per day with two-sleds, 172.
picking rear with, on a log drive, 377.
rations for, 136, 137.
regions where used, 131.
trips daily for given distances, 172, 192.
use in, cableway logging, 202, 203.
hauling cars on pole tram roads with, 245,
operating log slides with, 237.
snaking system, 207.
West Virginia, 434, 435.
woodlot logging, New England, 420.
on the Pacific Coast, 150.
small operations, Colorado, 423.
value, 131.
water requirements, 138.
weight for logging purposes, 131.
Hosmer, Ralph S., on a forest working plan for Township 40, 471.
Hough, F. B., on statistics of forest products used in tanning, 466, 476.
Hydraulic machines for inclines, 299.
Hygiene, camp, 66, 70.
Idaho, a log flume in, 398.
log slides in, 230.
pole tram roads in, 244, 245.
stumpage values in, 10.
Idaho, wage list, 531, 532.
Improvement of stream bed and banks, 359, 379.
Inclines, cables for, 297-300, 302.
566 INDEX
Inclines, capacity, 298, 300.
character, 297, 300.
cost of, 298.
dudleys for, 221, 301.
h\-draulic lowering device for, 298.
length of, 297.
lowering cars on, 300.
operation of, 297, 299-302.
power for, 297 - 299. 301.
snubbing machines for, 298, illustration, 300.
West \irginia, 435.
where used, 297.
Indiana, stumpage values in, 19, 22, 23.
Industries, minor, 439.
Inland Empire, bummers used in, 178.
carts used in, 181.
floating and rafting logs in, 343.
log wagons used in, 187.
slides used in, 230.
Insect damage, cypress, 89.
felled timber, 87.
Insurance, standing timber, 36.
Canada, 37.
Europe, 36.
International log rule, Clark's, 109, 121, 122, 513.
Ives, J. F., on fuel oil as a substitute for wood and coal in logging, 321, 474.
on the use of compressed air in logging, 321, 474.
Jacks, loading, 330, 432.
Jack works for loading logs on cars, 331.
Jams, log, on streams, 376, 377, 379.
Jammers, horse, 171.
Jepson, W. L., on the California tanbark oak, 465, 466, 476.
Johnson, J. B., on sur\-eying, 256, 296, 473.
Jones, A. F., on accountants, relation to timber bond issues, 44, 476.
Journals, lumber trade, 478.
Juglans nigra, 23.
Jumbo sled, 159, 427.
Juniperus virginiana, 17.
Kalb, Henr}' A., on the use of compressed air in snubbing logs, 221, 475.
Kellogg, R. S., on the original forests, 476.
on the timber supply of the United States, 3.
Kentucky, legal fee for catching stray logs in, 346.
stumpage values in, 18.
Kerosene, use of in felling timber, 86.
Kettenring, F. A., a flume trestle designed b}', 409.
Key log in a jam, 374.
Kilhig or sampson, 83, illustration, 84.
Kirsch, Simon., on the origin and development of resin canals in the coniferae,
445. 458, 477-
Knots, 96, 103, 525-527.
Labor, 47.
amount required to construct flume trestles, 408.
camp hygiene, 70.
camps for, 56.
character, 48.
construction crew on a flume in Washington, 407.
contract, 49.
INDEX 567
Labor, cost, on an incline operation, 298.
crew for flume operation, 410.
crews for power logging, 203, 204 206, 207, 212, 213, 215.
factors which influence wages, 50.
felling crews, 90, 419, 422, 424, 426, 428, 430, 432, 435.
forest, 47.
length of employment, 47.
log driving, 374.
logging operations, Colorado, 421.
cypress, 430.
Lake States, 426.
New England, 419.
Northeast, 424.
Northwest, 431.
Southern pine region. 427.
West Virginia, 434.
medical attention for, 70.
method of employment and payment of, 48.
organization of, 51.
tanbark harvesting, 460, 461, 464.
turpentine orcharding, 444-449, 451, 452, 454, 456.
unions, 50, 71.
Lacey, J. D., on the science of timber valuation, 44, 476.
Lake States, boom companies in, 369.
camps, 426.
carts, log, use of, 181, 182, 184, 185.
dams, pile, use of, 353.
equipment, cars and locomotives, used on a white pine operation in,
320.
felling, time of, 87, 426.
felling and log-making, 426.
felling crews, organization of, 90.
labor, 426.
loaders, power, for sleds, 171.
log barges in, 392.
logs, per cent lost on drives, 345.
raising sunken, 392.
season in which they are transported by water, 368.
logging, cost of, 427.
season of, 426.
machinery, introduction of power skidding, 196.
skidding in the, 426.
sleds, season for hauling on, 167.
sluices, log, 400, 401.
steam log haulers used in, 174.
stumpage values in, 9, 21, 539, 540.
topography and bottom, 426.
transportation, 427.
unloaders, power log car, 334.
unloading log cars, method of, 333.
vehicles, use of wheeled, 178.
wage list, 532.
Landings, "breaking down," 375.
for loading log cars by a gin-pole, 329.
for loading log cars by jacks or peavies, 330.
for water transport, 143.
Langworthy, C. P., on horse feeding, 136, 138, 469.
Larch, floating ability of. 374.
Larch, resistance of wood in cross-cut sawing, 76.
western, associated species of, 9, 14, 17.
56S INDEX
Lark americana, 17.
Larix occidentalis, 9, 14, 17.
Lauderbum, D. E., on the elimination of waste in logging, 477.
Laws, federal regulations regarding floating logs on navigable streams, 381.
providing penalty for stealing logs, 346.
regulating fees for catching stray logs, 346.
Lengths, log, 97.
Lake States, 426.
Northeast, 98, 424.
Northwest, 98, 432.
South, 97, 428.
Libocedrus decurrens, 14.
Limber boom, 363, 377.
Liquidambar st>Taciflua, 19.
Lizard, 156.
Loaders, horse, 171.
power, :^2 2, 436.
Barnhart, 323.
capacity of, 328.
cost of, 325-328.
Decker, 326, illustration, 326.
gin-pole, 329.
McGiffert, 327, illustration, 327.
Model "C" American, 325, illustration, 324.
Model "D" American, 326.
operation of, ^2^^ 327-329.
placing logs in flumes with, 410.
Rapid, 326, illustration. 325.
Surry Parker, 3 28
types, S23-
unloading log cars with, 334.
Loading, cost of, 322, 328, 427, 429, 431, 436.
from water storage, 330.
hand, 170.
jack works for, 331.
jammers, 171.
power, 171, 322.
special devices for, 329.
with a cableway skidder, 202.
a cross haul, 171, 190, 322.
a gin-pole, 329.
a snaking system skidder, 207.
jacks or peavies, 330.
Loading, holes with d\Tiamite, 272.
logging cars, 322, illustration, 322.
sleds, 170.
wagons, 190, illustration, 191.
logs into flumes, 410.
Location, flumes, 395.
railroads, 251.
Locomotive, dragging logs on the Pacific Coast with, 220.
dudley, 221, 301.
for a dunnage or dust railroad, 284.
for logging purposes, 245, 247, 304, 432,
f Fictional resistance of a, 311.
fuel for a, 312.
geared, 247. 305.
hauling ability of a, 309, 312.
illustrations, 306, 308, 309.
Locomotive, light geared, for a pole tram road, 245.
INDEX 569
Locomotive, light geared, for a stringer road, 247.
Mallet articulated, 304.
resistance, frictional, 311.
to gravity, 310.
rod, 304.
saddle-tank, 304.
tractiv'e force of a, 309.
water for a, 314.
weight of, for logging, 304.
Locomotives, number required on a logging operation, 319-321.
Log barge, 392.
Log brands, 370-372.
Log carriers, 358.
Log cars, loading, 322.
unloading, 332.
Log carts, 180.
Log decking, crew for, 141.
equipment for, 141.
methods, 141.
Log defects, cat-face, 124.
checks and seams, 125.
circular shake, 123.
crook, or sweep, 125.
crotches, 125.
pin-dote, 124.
pin holes, rafting, 125.
punk knots, 124.
rot, butt, 124.
rot, uniform center or circular, 121.
sap, rotten, 125.
sap, stained, 125.
seams, 125.
sweep, 125.
Log drivers, 374, 375, illustration, 376.
Log dump, for unloading log cars, 334, 432, illustrations, 335, :iyt
Log grades, 125, 525.
Log grading rules, Douglas fir, 527.
hardwood, 525.
Log haulers, steam, 172, 425, 427.
capacitj' of, 176, 177.
character of, 173.
cost of, 174.
fuel for, 174.
illustration, 173.
operation, 176.
roads for, 174.
sleds for, 175, illustration, 175.
speed of, 1 74.
Log, key, 374.
Log lengths, 97, 119, 424, 426, 428, 432.
Log loaders, power, 322, illustrations, 324-327.
Log-making, bole, extent of utilization, 95.
Colorado, 421, 423,.
cutting logs for quality, 103.
cypress, 430.
equipment for, 100.
kerosene, use of, 86.
log lengths, 97, 119, 424, 426, 428, 432.
Lake States, 426.
measuring sticks used in, 84.
570 INDEX
Log-making, methods, 98.
Northeast, 424.
Northwest, 432, 434.
power bucking, 79, 100.
season of, 87.
southern yellow pine, 428.
trimming lengths of logs, 102.
imdercutters, 86.
waste in, loi.
wedges for, 81.
West Virginia, 435.
Log marks, 365, 370, illustration, 371.
Log rules, 108.
Clark's International, 109, 513.
Doyle, no, 517.
Doyle-Scribner, in.
factors on which they are based, 109.
Gobel cube, 113.
Herring or Beaumont, 112.
legal ones in different states, no, in.
Maine or Holland, in.
New Hampshire or Blodgett, 113, 520.
Nineteen-inch Standard, 112, 519.
Scribner, no, 514.
Log sluices, 394. 400.
boxes for, 400.
cost of, 409.
Log sorting and storage, 363.
Log storage, in artificial ponds for flume transport, 410.
loading logs from water, 330.
rollwaj's for dry, 334.
water, 332.
Logs, floating and rafting, 343.
advantages of rafting on streams, 381.
cost of, 380, 381.
disadvantages of, 343.
labor employed in, 374.
laws regulating fees for catching stray logs, 346.
length of logs for rafting, 97.
log jams, 377, 379-
loss attendant on, 344. 345.
management of log drives, 368.
rafting on the ocean, 390.
rafting on the Pacific Coast, 389.
rafting on streams. 381.
rafting works, 367.
storage and sorting facihties, 363.
stranded logs, habilitj' of owner for damage bj', 345.
theft of logs on Pacific Coast, 346.
preparation for pullboat logging, 212.
"prize," ownership of, 372.
sorting, 365, 379.
sunken, 392.
transport in flumes, 394, 398, 399, 404, 410, 411, 413.
transport of long, 97.
value of, Alaska, 437.
Logging, hand, 145, 436-
period of. 421. 424, 426, 427, 430, 431, 434, 436.
power for, 196. 475.
road engine for, 218.
INDEX 571
Logging, summary of methods in specific regions, 415.
terms used in, 481.
topography and bottom, 424, 426, 428, 430, 432, 435.
Logging camps, 56, 421, 424, 426, 428, 430, 432, 434.
Logging costs, 192, 203, 204, 423, 425, 427, 429, 431, 433, 434, 436, 437.
Logging labor, 47, 419, 424, 426, 427, 430, 431, 434.
Logging inclines, 297.
Logging methods, 214, 217, 418, 421, 424, 426, 427, 430, 431, 434, 436, 471.
Logging railroads, 242.
Logging roads in Colorado, 423.
Lombard, O. A., inventor of first successful steam log hauler, 172.
Louisiana, bummers, use in, 178.
clearing a railroad right-of-way in, 258.
dunnage or dust railroads in, 283.
moving earth and rock in, 262.
piling road in a cypress swamp in, 280.
pullboating in cypress swamps in, 208.
stumpage values in, 8, 541.
Lumber, amount required to construct flume trestles, 408, 412, 413.
price of, average retail, Sitka spruce in Alaska, 438.
thickness of, 108.
transport in flumes, 394, 396, 398, 399, 405, 409, 410.
value, sale, of southern yellow pine, 429.
Limiber, Lath and Shingles, 1910, 470.
Lumber manufacture, cost of, 429, 436, 437.
Lumbermen, attitude towards turpentine orcharding, 442.
Lumber Trade Journal, 478.
Lumber trade journals, 478.
Lumber World Review, 478.
MacLafferty, T. H., on handling log trains on steep grades, 303, 473.
Magnolia acuminata, 23.
Maine, log brands and marks used in, 371.
log drive on the Penobscot River in, 380.
paper birch, preparation for floating in, 373.
steam log hauler, one season's haul with a, 176.
stumpage values in, 13, 21.
Maine or Holland log rule, in.
Maintenance-of-way, logging railroad, 244, 247, 295.
Mallet articulated locomotive, 304.
Manual, The National Forest, 470.
Manual for Northern Woodsmen, 112, 522.
Manufacture, lumber, cost of, 429, 436, 437.
Maple, black, 19.
hard, 19.
associated species of, 13, 20.
floating ability of, 374.
Oregon, 19.
resistance of wood in cross-cut sawing, 76.
silver, 19.
sugar, 18.
Margolin, Louis., on hand logging, 154.
Marks, log, 365, 370, illustration, 371.
bark, 370.
"catch," 370.
"dehorning," 372.
legal status of, 372.
recording, 372.
Maryland, stumpage values in, 22.
Mauls, 82, illustration, 153.
572 INDEX
Maxwell, Hu., on the commercial woods of the United States, 24, 470,
McGiflfert log loader, 327.
McGrath, T. S., on timber bonds, 44, 476.
Measure, board, 107.
cord, 114.
cubic, 107, 113, 114.
^Measurement, acid wood, 107.
crosstles, 107.
excelsior wood, 107, 117.
firewood, 107, 117.
hoop poles, 107.
lumber, 108.
mine timber, 107.
novelty wood, 107.
poles, 107.
posts, 107.
pulpwood, 107, 113, 117.
shingle bolts, 107.
spool wood, 107.
stave bolts, 107, 117.
units of, 107.
Measuring stick for log-making, 84.
Medical attention, logging camps, 70.
Mereen, J. D., on the use of electricity in logging operations, 221, 475.
Methods, logging {see logging methods).
Metric system, 107.
Michigan, railroad, the first logging, in the United States, 247.
stumpage values in, 9, 19, 20, 22, 539.
sunken logs, raising, 392.
value of, 393.
]\Iiller, Udo., on the measurement of wood, 115.
Mine timbers, transport in flumes, 394, 396, 410, 412, 413.
Minnesota, log marks, validity of, 372.
stumpage values in, 539, 540.
surveyor-general, rights and duties of, 370, 372.
Minnesota National Forest, 28.
Minor industries, 439.
Mississippi, stumpage values in, 23, 541.
Mississippi River, boom companies on, 369.
log marks used on, 371.
logs lost on drives, per cent of, 345.
sawing season on, 344.
Missouri, railroad equipment used on a logging operation in, 320.
Mohr. Charles., on the naval stores industry, 458, 477.
on the timber pines of southern United States, 24, 458.
Montana, flume operation, crew required for, 410. ,
flume terminals used in, 404.
incline operated in, 298.
log wagon used in, 187.
logs lost in drives, per cent of, 345.
• slides used in, 230.
wage list, 531.
Morrell, F. W., on factors influencing logging and lumbering costs in Colorado,
470.
Motive power required on logging railroads, 319.
Mud sills for dams, 350.
Mule cart, 185.
Mules, advantages as a draft animal for logging purposes, 131.
daily output when snaking logs, 154.
hauling logs cart with, 184, 185.
INDEX 573
Mules, hauling log wagons with, 187, 191.
power logging, use in, 207.
rations for, 136, 137.
water requirements, 138.
weight for logging purposes, 132.
value of, 132.
Munger, T. T., on the growth and management of Douglas fir, 28.
Nails, amount required to construct flume trestles, 408, 409, 412, 413.
Narrow-gauge railroad, advantages of, 249.
cars for a, 315.
width of grade for a, 259.
National Forest, the Deerlodge, a flume in, 404.
Tongass, cost of logging in, 437.
National Forests, portable mill operations in, 417, 421.
stumpage values in, 6, 8, 14, 16, 17.
Needle or bracket gate for a logging dam, 357.
Nestos, R. R., on an aerial snubbing device, 303, 473.
New Brunswick, log driving in, 381, 384.
log driving companies in, 369, 381.
log sorting device used in, 366.
rafting logs in, 384.
New England, logging methods on portable mill operations, 417, 418.
New Hampshire, log drive in, 379, 380.
New Hampshire or Blodgett log rule, 113, 520.
Newby, F. E., on a gravity cable system, 229, 469.
Newlin, J. A., on the commercial hickories, 23, 471.
New York, flumes in, 398, 400.
log slides in, 230.
snaking logs with animals in, 148.
snaking logs with power in, 424.
stumpage values in, 13, 19, 20, 21.
New York Lumber Trade Journal, 478.
Nineteen-inch Standard log rule, 112, 519.
Nitro-glycerine, use in dynamite, 272.
North Carolina, power logging in, 196.
Northeast, cableway skidders used in, 203, 424.
camps, logging, 58, 424.
chutes used in, 236.
crews, felling in, 91, 424.
dam, rafter, in the Adirondacks, 352.
felling and log-making in, 87, 424.
flumes in Xew York, 398, 400.
kilhig used in, 83.
labor, 48, 374. 424.
length of logs cut in, 98.
loading sleds, hand method in, 170.
log driving in, 345, 368, 369, 379, 380,
log haulers, steam, used in, 172.
log sluices in, 400.
mauls used in, 82.
period of logging in, 424.
portable mill operations in, 417-420.
rossing logs, 104, 424.
skidding methods in, 424.
sleds and sled hauling in, 155, 157, 159, 172.
sleds, season for hauling on, 167.
snaking with animals, 146.
topography and bottom in, 424.
transportation, 424.
574 INDEX
Northwest, aenal tramways in, 223, 224.
ax handles used in, 73.
barking logs, 104.
camps, 62, 66, 432.
chutes, 235.
cost of logging in, 433, 434.
cost of railroad construction in, 259, 262, 281, 295, 434.
dudley, hauHng with a, 221, 301.
equipment, cars and locomotives, for a logging operation, 321.
feUing and log-making in, 87, 91, 93, 94, 100, 432.
floating and rafting logs in, 343.
fuel used on locomotives, 314.
hand logging in, 145.
incline in Oregon, operation of, 302.
labor, 47-50, 53, 9i, 215, 219, 431.
log lengths, 98.
log-making, 99.
log sUdes, 230.
logging, period of, 87, 431.
logging trucks, 318.
logging with power skidders, 203, 204, 208, 213, 432.
medical attention in camps, 70.
notching, 93.
pole tram roads, 245.
power bucking, 100.
rafting on Pacific Ocean, 390.
rafting on Puget Sotmd, 389.
saws used in, 74.
slides, log, 230.
spring boards, 83.
stump heights, 94.
topography and bottom, 432.
traction engines for hauling, 192.
transport, 432.
trucks, logging, 318.
undercutter used in, 86.
unloaders, power, used in, 334.
unloading log cars, :i;i:i.
wage list, 534.
wheeled vehicles used in, 178, 181.
yarding logs, 213, 432.
Notching, 92.
Nyssa aquatica, 23.
Oak, black, per cent of tannin in bark of, 459.
chestnut, harvesting the tanbark of, 463.
per cent of tannin in bark of, 459.
floating ability of, 373, 374.
red, 18, 19.
lumber cut, 1910, 19.
per cent of tannin in bark of, 459.
stumpage value of, 19, 418.
uses of, 18.
resistance of wood in cross-cut sawing, 76.
Spanish, per cent of tannin in bark of, 459.
stumpage value of, 18, 19, 418.
tanbark, associated species of, 11.
harvesting, 464.
per cent of tannin in bark of, 459.
yield of bark, 465.
INDEX
Oak, white, cross-cut saws for cutting, 75.
per cent of tannin in bark of, 459.
stumpage value of, 18, 418.
uses of, 1 8.
Ocean, raft building on, 390.
season in which logs are transported on, 368.
O'Gorman, J. S., on unloading log cars, 339, 473.
O'Hearne, James., on tilting log dumps, 339, 473.
Ohio, stumpage values in, 22.
Ohio River, floating logs on, 370.
loss of logs on a drive on, 346.
rafting logs on, 383.
Oil for a logging locomotive, daily cost of, 314.
Orcharding, turpentine, 441.
Oregon, a flume in, 411.
an incline in, operation of, 302.
Ownership of private timberlands, 546.
Oxen, advantages of, 129.
daily output when snaking logs, 154.
hauUng wagons with, 187, 188.
rations for, 137.
regions in which used, 130, 150.
value of, 131.
Pacific Coast (sec Northwest).
Paper Trade Journal, 478.
Peavey, 84, 376, 377, illustration, 85.
Peed, W. W., on the logging engineer in logging operations, 256, 474.
on logging redwood, 472.
Pennsylvania, animal snaking in, 148.
gates for logging dams, 357, 358.
legal fee for catching logs that are adrift, 346.
log slides in, 230.
per cent of logs lost on drives in, 345.
stumpage values in, 22.
Peters, J. Girvin., on the standing timber owned by the States, 476.
on waste in logging southern yellow pine, 106, 477.
Picea canadensis, 13.
Picea mariana, 13.
Picea rubra, 13.
Picea sitchensis, 14.
Pickaroon, 86, 410.
Pick rear, 377, 379.
Pick work in earth, output per hour, 263.
Pier dams, 359.
Pike poles, 376.
Pinchot, Gifford., on a new method of turpentine orcharding, 458, 477.
Pin-dote, 124.
Pin holes, rafting, 125.
Pine, Cuban, 442.
eastern white, cross-cut saws for cutting, 75.
floating abflity of, 374.
log lengths, 98, 426.
logs, sunken, value of, in Michigan, 393.
lumber cut, 19 10, 9.
stand per acre, 9.
stand, total, in the United States, 4.
storage capacity of one acre of water, 365.
stumpage value of, 9, 539, 540.
uses of, 9.
575
576 INDEX
Pine, loblolly, 4, 6, 442.
for turpentine orcharding, 442.
lodgepole, associated species of, 17.
felling and log-making in Colorado, 422.
lumber cut, 1910, 16.
markets, 16.
stand per acre, 16.
stand, total, in the United States, 4.
stumpage value of, 16.
uses of, 15.
longleaf, 4, 6, 95, 442, 476.
Norway, 4, 17.
pitch, 441.
rosemary, 441.
scotch, resistance of wood in cross-cut sawing, 76.
shortleaf, 4, 6, 95, 442.
southern yellow, blasting stumps of, 276.
cross-cut saws for cutting, 75.
floating ability of, 374.
log lengths, 97.
logs lost on drives, per cent of, 345.
lumber cut, 191 1, 8.
markets, 7.
rafting, 383, 384.
species of, 6.
stand per acre, 7, 8.
stand, total, in the United States, 4.
storage capacity of one acre of water, 365.
stump heights, 94.
stumpage values of, 8, 541.
uses of, 7.
sugar, 4.
associated species, 8, 15.
lumber cut, 1910, 15.
markets, 15.
stand per acre, 15.
stand, total, in the United States, 4.
stumpage value of, 15.
uses of, 15.
western white, associated species of, 9, 15.
lumber cut, 1910, 9.
markets, 9.
stand per acre, 9.
stumpage value of, 9.
western yellow, associated species of, 8, 15, 17.
lumber cut, 19 10, 8.
markets, 8.
stand per acre, 8.
stand, total, in the United States, 4.
stumpage value of, 8.
Pinus con tor ta, 15.
Pinus echinata, 6, 441.
Pinus heterophylla, 442.
Pinus lambertiana, 15.
Pinus monticola, 9.
Pinus palustris, 6, 442.
Pinus ponderosa, 8.
Pinus rigida, 441.
Pinus strobus, 9.
Pioneer Western Lumberman, 478.
INDEX 577
Pitch, 96.
Platanus occidentalis, 23.
Plowing earth, output per hour, 263.
Plug boom, 361.
Plummer, Fred G., on forest fires, 38, 469.
Pockets, rafting, 389.
Pole railroad, 242.
cars for a, 244.
character of road, 242.
constructing a right-of-way for, 242.
construction, cost of, 244.
grades, 242.
maintenance of, 244.
Poles, chestnut, stumpage value in Connecticut, 418.
felling and peeling, 419.
pike, 376.
rafting, 383.
PoUeys, E. G., on an Idaho lumbering operation, 472.
Poplar, floating ability, 374.
resistance of wood in cross-cut sawing, 76.
yellow, cross-cut saws for cutting, 75.
lumber cut, 1910, 18.
stumpage value of, 18.
uses of, 18.
Portable house, camp, 61.
cost, 63, illustration, 62.
loading on a car with animals, 63.
loading on a car with power, 63.
material required for construction of, 63.
Portable mill operations, 417.
Potter, 171.
Potter, E. O., on the cable locomotive, 303, 473.
Powder, black, 275.
Power, for aerial tramway, 223 - 225, 228.
cableway system, 199.
inclines, 297-299, 301.
a road engine, 218.
slack-rope system, 208, 213, 217.
snaking system, 204.
felling machine, 78.
Power log loaders, 322.
log-making machine, 79.
skidding, 196.
cableway system, 196.
first patent on machinery for, 196.
slack-rope system, 208, 430.
snaking system, 204.
Pratt, C. S., on workmen's compensation acts, 55.
Primers and priming for dynamite, 273.
Protection, forest property, 25.
Prunus serotina, 23.
Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 5.
Paget Sound, rafting on, 368.
rafting works on, 368.
season for transporting logs on, 368.
Pullboat, canals for, 208.
"fantailing," 208, illustrations, 209, 210.
Louisiana swamps, operation in, 196, 208, 430.
operation of, 208, 430.
skidding, preparation of logs for, 211, 212.
5/8 INDEX
Pulpwood, peeling, 105, 424.
transport in flumes, 394, 398, 399, 404, 410.
Punk knots, 124.
Puppies for pullboat logging, 212.
Quebracho wood for tanning, 459.
Quercus alba, 18.
densiflora, 11, 88, 459.
prinus, 88, 459.
Raft bundles, 367, 387.
Rafting, 343, 381.
advantage of, on streams, 381.
charges for, Canada, 381.
Coastal Plain region, 367, 387.
cypress region, 213, 387, 430, 431.
Great Lakes, 382.
Mississippi River, 3S5.
New Brunswick, 384, illustration, 384.
Northeast, 425.
Northwest, 432.
Ohio River, 383.
Pacific Coast, 389.
Pacific Ocean, 390.
southern streams, 383, 384, 430.
Rafting dogs, 383, illustration, 383.
pockets, 368, 389.
poles, 383.
works, 367, 368.
Rafts, Coastal Plain region, 367, 387, illustration, 388.
cypress region, 213, 387, 431, illustration, 387.
ocean-going, 368, 390.
Rafts fastened with poles, 383.
on the Great Lakes, 367.
Mississippi River, 385, illustration, 382, 385, 386.
Pacific Coast, 389.
Puget Sound, 368.
Railroad, advantages of rail transport, 248.
amount of supplies required to build one mile of track, 2S9.
angle bars for a track, 288.
cars required on a logging operation, 319.
cattle guards for, 286.
chartered, 250.
choice of gauge for a, 249.
construction of a, 257- 259, 295, 427, 429, 431, 434, 436.
cribwork for a, 284.
crossties for a, 286, 289.
culverts for, 285, illustration, 279.
dunnage or dust, 283, 431.
fish plates for, 288.
forest, 242.
grades for, 242, 246, 252, 254.
inchnes, 297.
incorporation of, 250.
location of, 206, 214, 251.
locomotives, 304.
maintenance-of-way, 295.
mileage in operation, 247.
motive power for, 304, 319.
piling for, 280.
INDEX 579
Railroad, pole road, 242, illustrations, 243, 244.
rail fastenings for, 288.
right-of-way for a, 250.
roadbed for a spur, 260, illustration, 260.
spikes for, 288.
straps for rails, 288.
steel laying and removal, 290.
steel rail, the first, 247.
steel rails for a, 287, 289.
stringer, 245, 435, illustration, 246.
Railroad operation, cypress, 431.
Lake States, 427.
Northeast, 425.
Northwest, 434.
South, 428, 429.
West Virginia, 435, 436.
Railroad spurs, 253-255, 257, 258, 260, 283, 284, 287, 288, 291, 295.
Rails, elevation of, 294, illustration, 294.
guard, 290, illustration, 289.
incline, 297, 298, 302.
on log cars, log loader operation, 315, 323.
resistance of, to friction, 311.
steel, 287, 289.
stringer road, 247.
weight of, 287.
Raking, turpentine orcharding, 448.
Rankin, R. L., on topographic surveys for a logging railroad, 256.
Rapid log loader, 326.
Rations, animal, calculation of, 135.
elements of, 132.
feeding standards, 133.
feeding stuffs, 134, 135, 137.
quantities fed, 136, 137.
water requirements, 138.
weight of feeding stuffs, per quart, 137.
men, U. S. Geological Survey, 69.
Maine logging camp, 69.
Record, Samuel J., on forest fire insurance, 38, 469.
on suggestions to woodlot owners, 24.
Redwood, associated species of, 11, 14.
cross-cut saws for cutting, 75.
floating ability of, 374.
log car unloading device, 339.
log lengths, 98.
logging with a duplex engine, 217.
lumber cut, 1910, 11.
markets, 11.
rossing logs, 105.
stand per acre, 11.
stand, total, in the United States, 4.
stumpage value of, 11.
uses of, II.
Reed, Franklin W., on a working plan for forest lands in Central Alabama, 472.
Reservoirs, storage, for log driving, 348.
watershed area required for, 348.
Resistance, frictional, on a locomotive haul, 309, 311.
Restigouche River, New Brunswick, log driving on, 381.
Rights, timber, 251.
Right-of-way for a railroad, 242, 246, 257-259, 283.
Riparian owners, legal complications with, on log drives, 345.
580 INDEX
Road engine, 213, 218, 432, 433.
Roads, cart, 184.
dunnage or dust, 283.
fore-and-aft pole, 233.
pole rail, 242.
puUboat, 209, 431.
rail, 242.
road engine, 219.
skid, 149.
skipper, 148, 435.
sled, bridges for, 166.
breaking out, 170. *
maintenance of, 167, 169.
rutter for, 167, 168.
snow plow for, 167, 168.
snow sheds for, 166, illustration, 167.
sprinkler for, 167, 168.
two-sled, 162, 425.
yarding sled, 161.
stringer rail, 245.
traction engine, 192, 195.
wagon, 190.
yarding engine, 214.
Robertson, J. E., on the log i3ume, 413, 477.
Rock, blasting, 269.
classification of, 261, 269.
excavation of, 269.
"free haul" in grading contracts, 261.
increase in bulk when broken up, 269.
measurement of, 260.
movement of, 260-262, 269.
ratio of slope for fills and cuts, 259.
Rod locomotives, 304, 320, 321.
Rolling stock for a logging railroad, 319.
Rollways for unloading log cars, 332, illustration, 332.
Rosin, markets, 457.
production, 441.
value, 458.
Ross, Kenneth., on logging by rail in IMontana, 472.
Rossing or barking logs, 104, 424.
Rot, stump or butt, 124.
Rothkugel, Max., on the management of spruce and hemlock lands in West Vir-
ginia, 472.
Rules, log (see log rules).
Runs, for cableway skidder, 201.
for pullboat logging, 209, 431.
for slack-rope skidder, 214, 215.
Russell, C. W., on the use of compressed air on logging trucks, 321, 474.
Rutter for a sled road, 167, 168.
Sack boom, 382.
Sackett, H. S., on timber bonds, 44, 476.
Saddle-tank locomotive, 304, 312.
St. John River, New Brunswick, log driving and rafting on, 381, 384, illustra-
tion, 364.
St. Louis Lumberman, 478.
Sales expense for logs, Northwest, 434.
Sampson or kilhig, 83.
Sap, rotten, 125.
stained, 125.
INDEX 581
Sargent, Charles S., on the forests of North America, 459.
Saw, cross-cut, bevel of, 77, illustration, 78.
blade of a, 74.
cost of a, 74.
handle for a, 74, illustration, 75.
life of a, 78.
resistance of wood in cutting with a, 76.
teeth of a, 75, illustration, 76.
endless chain, 79, illustration, 80.
• felling timber with a, 93, 419, 421, 424, 428, 430.
Saw files, 77.
Saw fitting, 77.
Saw-fitting tools, 77.
Scaling, log, 117. 474-
allowance for defects in, 121.
by the surveyor-general of Minnesota, 370.
check scaling, 119.
cost of, 119, 434.
defective logs, 121.
methods, 118, 119.
objects of, 117, 120.
on National Forests, 120.
re-scaHng, 119.
tools for, 117, 118.
Schenck, C. A., on logging, 463, 470.
Scotch or goose-neck for log slides, 240.
Scrapers, drag, for moving earth, 266.
wheeled, for moving earth, 266.
Scraping, turpentine orcharding. 448.
Scribner log rule, no, 514.
Seams in logs, 125.
Season for towing logs on the Ocean, 392.
Section crews, logging railroad, 295.
Sequoia sempervirens, 10.
Sequoia Washingtoniana, 11.
Sessoms, H. W., on logging camp records, 470.
Shake in logs, circular, 123.
Shay, E. E., first constructor of a geared locomotive, 305.
Shay locomotive, 308, 312, 314, 320, 321, illustration, 309.
Sheep-shank boom, 361.
Shields, R. W., on logging in the Dismal Swamp, 471.
Shingle bolt transport, aerial tram, 228.
in flumes, 394, 398, 399.
Shoveling earth, output per hour, 263.
Shovels, steam, for moving earth, 268.
Sitka spruce, 14, 17, 437.
Skeleton log cars, 317, 320.
Skidding, 140, 146.
bummer haul, 179.
carts, 184.
contract prices for, 192, 420.
cost of, 192, 420, 423, 425, 427, 429, 431, 433, 434, 436, 437-
illustration, 147.
Skidding methods, Alaska, 436.
cypress region, 430.
Lake States, 426.
Northeast, 424.
Northwest, 431.
power, 196, 424, 427, 428, 430, 432, 435, 436.
simplification of, by felling, 90.
582 INDEX
Skidding methods, small operations, 420, 422.
southern yellow pine, 179, 180, 428.
trails, 148, illustrations, 147, 148.
wagon haul, 190.
West Virginia, 435.
yarding engine, 213, 432 - 434, 436.
Skid roads, 149, 219.
Skids, balanced, for loading aerial tram trolleys, 223.
cross, for an incline, 302.
fender, timber slide, 230.
hardwood, for log wagon, 189.
Skid ways, 140.
capacit_v, 142.
construction, 140, 143, 144.
decking logs on, 141.
for dry land storage at a sawmill, 334.
for a railroad haul, 143, 257.
sled haul, 140.
wagon haul, 143, 191.
illustration, 142.
sites for, 142, 143, igr, 257.
Skipper, grab, 153, illustration, 153.
Skipper road. West Virginia, 435, illustrations, 148, 152.
Skippers, 148.
Slack puller, cableway skidder, 199, 200.
Slack-rope power logging, 196, 208, 432, 436.
Sledge, 82.
Sleds, 155.
bob, 158.
chains for, 171.
for a steam log hauler, 175.
go-devil, 155.
hauling with, 155, 170, 420, 423, 424, 427.
jumbo, 159.
lizard, 156.
loading, 171.
roads for, 161, 162, illustrations, 163, 165.
scoot, 420.
season for hauling with, 167.
two-sled, 159, 162, 425, 427, illustration, 160.
yarding, 157, 161, 425, illustration, 157.
SHdes, log, bibliography, 475.
cost of, 241.
curves on, 238.
earth, 230.
grades, 236, 237.
illustrations, 231 - 235, 238- 240.
Northeast, 425.
Northwest, 433.
operation of, 238.
running, 236.
speed, checking on, 240.
timber, 230, 231.
■'trail," 230.
West Virginia, 435.
where built, 230.
Sluice gates, logging dams, 354, illustrations, 354-357.
Sluices, log, 394, 400, 401.
Smith, Herbert Knox., on the stand of timber, 476.
Snaking, animal, 146, 180, 184, 190, 420, 422, 425, 426, 428, 435.
INDEX 583
Snaking, animal, crews, 154.
drumming, 150.
equipment for, 150.
output, daily, for horses and mules, 154, 425.
trails for, 148, illustration, 147.
power, 196, 204, 205, 208, 424, 428, 430, 432, 435.
animals for hauling cable, 207.
capacity of machines, 207.
crews, 206, 207, illustration, 205.
operation of machines, 205, 207, 208, 213.
portable machines for, 205.
pullboats for, 208.
Sniping logs, 105, 211, 431.
Snow plow for a sled road, 167, 168, 170.
Snow shed for a sled road, 166, illustration, 167.
Snubbing machine for inclines, 298.
Somerville, S. S., on building logging railroads, 296, 473.
Sopris National Forest, stumpage values in, 17.
Sorting gap, 365, illustrations, 366, 367.
Sorting logs, 363, 365, 379.
South, bummers, use of, 178.
carts and cart roads, 181, 184.
cars, logging, required on a logging operation, 320, 321.
contract prices, logging. 192.
cost of, fuel for locomotives, 314.
railroad construction, 258, 262, 295.
equipment for a log wagon, 189.
logging with, animals, 154.
bummers, 178.
carts, 180.
lizards, 156.
power skidders, 196, 206, 208, 428.
wagons, 185.
wheeled vehicles, 178.
motive power used on an operation, 320, 321.
operations, logging, cypress, 430. <
portable mill, 417.
southern yellow pine, 427.
rafting in, 383, 384, 3^7-
railroad right-of-way in, 251, 257.
season for transporting logs by water in, 368.
unloading log cars, 332.
Southern Industrial and Lumber Review, 478.
Southern Lumberman, 478.
Southern Lumber Journal, 478.
Southern pine region, camps, 62. 64, 70, 71, 428.
contract price for skidding and hauling, 192.
felling and log-making, 91, 97, 428.
hauling, 178, 428.
labor, 48, 91, 427, 533.
logging, equipment, 178, 180, 183, 185, 189.
portable mill operations, 417.
power, 196, 203, 206.
railroads, 257, 258, 262, 428.
rolling stock for, 320, 321.
season of, 427.
skidding, 428.
topography and bottom, 428.
transport, 428.
unloading log cars, 333.
584 INDEX
Southern \'ello\v pine, stumpage value of, 8, 541.
Southwest, brush disposal in, 26.
Southwest, use of wheeled vehicles for logging in, 178, 181.
Spark arrester, 30.
boomerang, ^^, illustration, 2^.
Radlej-Hunter, ^^, illustration, 34.
Sequoia, 30, illustration, 31.
South Bend, 31, illustration, 31.
spark cap, 32, illustration, ^2.
Spaulding, V. M., on the white pine, 24.
Spenser, F. F., on logging in California, 472.
Spikes, railroad, 288, 289.
Spring board, 83, illustration, 83.
Sprinkler for a sled road, 167, 168, illustration, 169.
Spruce, black, 13.
eastern, associated species of, 13.
cross-cut saws for cutting, 75.
floating ability of, 374.
log lengths, 98.
logs lost on drives, per cent of, 345.
liunber cut, 1910, 13.
markets, 13.
rossing logs of, 105.
stand per acre, 13.
stand, total, in the United States, 4.
storage capacity of one acre of water, 365.
stumpage value of, 13.
uses of, 13.
Englemann, 17, 422.
log lengths, 98.
red, 13.
resistance offered to cutting with a cross-cut saw, 76.
Sitka, 14, 17.
lumber grades manufactured from, 437.
price, average retail, of lumber in Alaska, 438.
• western, lumber cut, 1910, 17.
markets, 17.
stand per acre, 17.
stand, total, in the United States, 4.
stumpage value of, 17.
uses of, 17.
white, 13.
Spur, logging railroad (see railroad spurs.)
Stakes, log car, long, 316.
patent drop, 316, 317.
short, 315.
Standards, relation between cords and, 112.
Standard-gauge railroad, 249, 250.
cars for, 315.
Standard log lengths, 119.
Starbird. W. D., on flumes, 413, 477.
Steel. Francis, R.. on flumes. 395. 396, 413, 477.
Steel lading and removal, railroad, 290.
Steinbus, Ferdinand, on aerial tramways, 229, 469.
Stephen, John W.. on lopping branches on logging operations, 470.
Stimson, Charles W., on power logging in fir timber, 475.
Storage and sorting faciUties, log, 363.
Storage booms, 364, 365.
Storage sites for logs, 140, 191, 257, 330, 331.
Storehouse, camp, 59-61.
INDEX 585
Storms, influence on transport of timber, by water, 368.
loss of logs by, when floated and rafted, 345.
loss of timber by wind, 37.
Straps for steel rails, 288, 289, illustration, 288.
Stream bed and banks, abutments for, 360.
artificial channels, 360.
booms, 360, 379.
improvement of, 359.
pier dams, 359.
Streams, drivable, requirements for a, 347.
driving logs, on large, 379.
on small, 375.
floatable, 347.
jams, log, on, 377, 379.
navigable, 347.
Stringer railroad, 245.
cars for, 247.
character, 246.
construction of, 247.
grades on, 246.
maintenance of, 247.
rails for, 246.
West Virginia, 435.
Stump or butt rot, 124.
Stumps, blasting, 276.
height of, 94.
removal of, 258.
waste in cutting high, 94.
Stumpage values, 6, 8- 23, 442, 539-541.
Sudworth, Geo. B., on conservative turpentining, 458, 477.
Summary of logging methods, 415.
Sunken logs, 344, 392.
Surfacing railroads, 294.
Surry Parker log loader, 328.
Surveyor-general, Minnesota, 370, 372.
Susquehanna River, loss of logs by floods on, 345.
Swamping, 72, 98, 180, 184, 190, 211, 214, 215, 419, "422, 429, 435.
Sweep, logs, 125.
Switch, railroad, 290, illustration, 289.
slide, 233.
Sycamore, 23.
floating ability of, 374.
Tail tree, cablevvay skidder, 196- 198, illustration, 198.
pullboat, 210.
Tamping, explosives in a drill hole, 274.
material for, 275.
Tanbark, bibliography, 476.
harvesting, 435, 459.
season in which timber is peeled, 88, 435, 459, 463, 464.
species from which secured, 88, 459.
supply, source of, 459.
thickness of bark, 462, 463.
transportation of, 461, 465.
weight of hemlock, 463.
yield, chestnut oak, 464.
hemlock, 462.
tanbark oak, 465.
Taxodium distichum, 11.
Team boss, duties of, 191.
586 INDEX
Tennessee, aerial tram in, 222.
Tennessee, stumpage values in, 18.
Tennessee river, logs lost on drives on, 345.
Terminals, log flume, 404.
Terms used in logging, 481.
Texas, cableway skidder in, 203.
stumpage values in, 541.
Thompson, Jas. R., on the use of electricity in logging, 221, 475.
Thuj-a plicata, 9, 14.
Tiemann, H. D., on the log scale, 113, 126, 474.
on loss in log scale due to center rot, 122.
Tilia americana, 21.
Timber, deadening, 89, 430, 431.
felling (sec felling timber),
loss by storms, 37.
loss through turpentine orcharding, 442.
mine, transport in flumes, 394, 396, 410.
ownership in the United States, 4, 5, 546.
right-of-way, uses for, 258.
stand of, by species, 4, 6 - 22.
stand, total, in the United States, 3, 4, 475, 545.
Timber bonds, 39, 476.
Timber estimating, woodlots of Connecticut, 418.
Timber rights, 251.
Timber slides and chutes, (see Slides).
Timber work for a railroad grade, 278.
Timberlands in the United States, private ownership of, 546.
The Timberman, 223, 281, 299, 305, 312, 330, 334, 478.
Tongass National Forest, logging in, 437.
stumpage values in, 17.
Tongs, for animal skidding, 152, illustration, 151.
for pullboat skidding, 212.
Topography in various forest regions, 424, 426, 428, 432, 435.
Towing rafts, cypress, 431.
Pacific Coast, 390.
Pacific Ocean, 391, 392.
Towing booms, 360, 367, 382, 389.
Traction engine, caterpillar gasoline tractor, 195.
four-wheeled, 192.
hauling log wagons with, 188.
Holt three- wheeled, 193, illustration, 194.
Tractive force of locomotives, 309.
Tractor, caterpillar gasoline, 195.
Tracy, John Clinton, on plane surveying, 256, 296, 473.
Tramways, aerial, 222, 433, 435.
capacity of, 223 - 225, 228.
endless cable, 228.
gravity, 222.
illustrations, 224, 225, 227.
single-wire, 222-225.
Transport, rail, 242, 304, 425, 427, 428, 430, 432, 435.
advantages of, 248.
sled, 155, 170, 172.
steam log hauler, 172.
traction engines, 192.
water, 341.
alligator for towing logs, 377, 379.
boom companies, 369.
liability of, 369.
conduct of drives, 368.
INDEX 587
Transport, water, cj-press region, 431.
disadvantages of, 343.
drives, log, 368, 374, 375, 379.
flianes, 394.
hardwood logs, preparing for, 373.
headworks for towing logs, 377, 379.
in the Northeast, 425.
in the Northwest, 432.
in West Virginia, 436.
labor, 374.
log barges, 392.
log storage and sorting facilities, 363.
loss of logs attending, 344, 345, 346.
on the Paciiic Coast, 3S9.
on the Pacific Ocean, 390.
rafting works, 367.
. season for, 368.
sorting equipment, 365.
species that will float, 372.
Trautwine, on amount of work performed with a churn drill, 270.
on evaporation of water in locomotives, 314.
Travois, 155.
Trestle, construction of, 278, 281.
cost of, 282.
flume, 400, 401, 405, 408.
for a railroad grade, 278.
framed, 281.
illustrations, 279, 282.
pile, 278.
Trestle bent, 278.
Trolley, for an aerial tramway, 223, 225-227.
for a cableway skidder, 198.
Trucks, log, 318.
Tsuga canadensis, 9, 459.
Tsuga heterophylla, 9, 459.
Tupelo, 23.
Turney, Harry., on air brake equipment for logging trucks, 321, 474.
Timiout, for a logging railroad, 290, illustration, 289.
Turpentine, markets for, 457.
production in 1911, 441.
value of, 458.
Turpentine, crude, distillation of, 455.
Turpentine orcharding, 441.
attitude of lumbermen towards, 442.
bibliography of, 476.
box system, chipping, 445.
cornering, 445.
cutting boxes, 444.
dipping, 447.
cost of operation, 443-445, 447, 448, 451, 452, 454, 457.
cup system, Gilmer-lMcCall, 454.
Herty's cup and gutter, 449, illustrations,
450-452-
]\IcKoy, 453, illustration, 453.
lease value of a "crop," 443.
loss of timber from, 442.
method of operation, 443.
number of receptacles per tree, 444.
raking, 448.
scraping, 448.
588 INDEX
Turpentine orcharding, size of tree worked, 444.
species worked, 441.
yield per "crop," 457.
Two-sled, binding chains for, 171.
capacity, 172.
character, 159.
cost, 161.
dimensions, 159.
loading, 170.
roads for a, 162.
Ulmus americana, 22.
Ulmus pubescens, 22.
Ulmus racemosa, 22.
Undercut, felling, 92, illustration, 92.
Undercutters, 86, illustration, 86.
Uniform center or circular rot, 121.
cull table for, 123.
method of discounting for, 121, 122.
Unions, labor, 50, 71.
Unloaders, power, for log cars, 334.
Unloading log cars, 332.
cableway system, 334.
hand methods, S33-
Hercules log unloader, 338.
log dump, 334.
power unloaders, 334.
special device for, 339.
Unloading log wagons, 191.
Upson, A. T., on waste in logging and milling, 477.
Value, sale, 3'eUow pine lumber, 429.
Van Orsdel, John P., on cableway loading system, 339, 473.
on topographic surveys, 256, 474.
\' chicles, wheeled, 178.
bummers, 178.
hauling with, 190.
log carts, 180.
mule carts, 185.
roads for, 184, 190.
two-wheeled, 178.
wagons, 185.
eight-wheeled, 188.
equipment for, 189.
four-wheeled, 186.
six-wheeled, 188.
Vermont, wage list, 534.
Virginia, harvesting tanbark in, 463.
stumpage values in, 8, 22, 541.
Von Almburg, Dr. F. Angenholzer., on transport of logs in slides, 241, 475.
Von Schrenck, Hermann., on the bluing and red rot of the western yellow pine,
106, 470.
Wage lists, 529.
Arkansas, 533.
cjTDress region, Louisiana, 533.
Lake States, 532.
Montana and Idaho, 531.
Ontario, Canada, 534.
Pacific Coast, 534.
INDEX 589
Wage lists, southern pine region, Texas, 533.
Vermont, 534.
Wages, log drivers, 375.
portable mill operations, Connecticut, 419.
small operations, Colorado, 421.
Wagons, 185.
cost of loading and hauling with, 186.
dump, for moving earth, 265.
eight-wheeled, 188, 428, illustration, 189.
equipment for, 189.
four-wheeled, 186, 428, illustration, 186.
mule-carts, 185.
on southern pine operations, 428.
portable woodlot work in Connecticut, 420.
six-wheeled, 188, 428.
traction engines for hauling, 192.
Walnut, black, 23.
Wanigan, 375.
Washington, legal fee for catching logs that are adrift, 346.
log dump used in, 334.
piling railroad in, 281.
V-flume built in, 405.
Waste, daily cost of, for a logging locomotive, 314.
Waste in log-making, loi, illustrations, 102, 103.
Wastell, A. B., on a logging camp on wheels, 471.
Water, amount consumed by logging locomotives, 314.
amount required for flume operation, 410, 411.
Water tank cars, 320.
Water transport, {sec transport, water).
Wedges, 81, illustration, 81.
Weight, logging locomotives, 304, 305, 307, 308.
steel rails, 287.
Weigle, W. G., on the aspens, 472.
Wentworth, G. K., on a logging incline, 303, 473.
West Coast Lumberman, 478.
West Virginia, camps, 434.
cost of logging, 436.
felling and log-making, 435.
labor, 434.
legal fees for collecting logs that are adrift, 346.
mountain logging in, 434.
period of logging, 434.
skidding, 435.
stumpage values in, 13.
topography and bottom, 435.
transportation, 435.
value of oak tanbark in, 463.
Western Lumberman, 478.
Western yellow pine, 8, {see pine, western yellow).
Wheelbarrows, moving earth with, 264.
Whippoorwill switch for a timber slide, 233.
Wild Ammonoosuc River, New Hampshire, log driving on, 379,
Williams, Asa S., on logging by steam, 221, 303, 473, 475.
on the mechanical traction of sleds, 176, 472.
Willow, resistance of wood in cross-cut sawing, 76.
Wind damage to standing timber, 37.
Wisconsin, crib dam in, 351.
stumpage values in, 539.
Wood, A. B., on topographic mapping, 256, 474.
Wood Craft, 478.
590 INDEX
Wood Worker, 478.
Woolsey, Jr., Theodore S., on Xational Forest timber sale contract, 471.
on scaling government timber, 126, 475.
on the western yellow pine in Arizona and New Mexico,
26, 470.
Workmen's compensation acts, 51.
Works, rafting, 367, 368.
Worm holes in logs, 96.
Wyoming, a flume in, 409.
Yarding engine, cost of, 214.
crew for, 215.
daily output, 217.
duplex, 217.
loading log cars with a, 329.
logging in the Northwest with, 213, 432.
method of operation, 214.
size of, 213, 217.
Yarding logs, Alaska, 436, 437.
Colorado, 423.
Northeast, 161, 425.
Northwest, 213, 432-434, 437.
Yarding sled, 157.
capacity, 158.
construction, 157.
cost of hauling logs on a, 158.
fastening logs on a, 158, illustration, 158.
roads for a, 161, illustrations, 162, 163.
Yellow pine, blasting stumps of, 276.
contract prices for skidding and hauling, 192.
Yield, tanbark, chestnut oak, 464.
hemlock, 462.
tanbark oak, 465.
Ziegler, E. A., on standardizing log measures, 113, 126, 475.
Zon, Raphael., on chestnut in southern ]Mar>-land, 88.
on factors influencing the volume of wood in a cord, 115, 126, 475.
on foreign sources of timber supply, 476.
on management of second-growth in the southern Appalachians,
471.
Subjects Related to this Volume
For convenience a list of the Wiley Special Subject Catalogues,
envelope size, has been printed. These are arranged in groups
— each catalogue having a key symbol. (See Special Subject
List Below). To obtain any of these catalogues, send a
postal using the key symbols of the Catalogues desired.
List of Wiley Special Subject Catalogues
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Canning and Preserving,
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