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List of conflicts in territory of the former Soviet Union

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Map showing Russian political and military influence or interference as of March 2014
Changes in national boundaries after the end of the Cold War
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This is a list of the crises and wars in the countries of the former Soviet Union following its dissolution in 1991. Those conflicts have different origins but two primary driving factors can be identified : ethnic and cultural tensions (which underlie many of the conflicts in the Caucasus and Central Asia), and Russian irredentism, meaning Russia's policies to restore its historical sphere of influence, much of which was lost after the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Ethnic and cultural tensions

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Ethnic and cultural tensions in the post-Soviet space largely have their roots in the territorial delineations established during the early Soviet period (1920s–1930s), particularly through the policy of so-called national-territorial delimitation (in Russian: национально-территориальное размежевание, transliteration: natsionalno-territorialnoye razmezhevaniye). Although this policy officially aimed to create coherent national republics based on ethnic, linguistic, and economic criteria,[1][2] it often resulted in complex borders that left many minorities isolated within entities dominated by other groups. These decisions, compounded by later policies of centralization and russification contributed to the emergence of interethnic tensions following the breakup of the USSR.[3][4]

Throughout most of the Soviet era, such tensions remained latent, largely due to the authoritarian nature of the regime, which suppressed any form of identity-based or political expression. However, starting in 1985, the implementation of perestroika and glasnost reforms by Mikhail Gorbachev introduced a certain degree of freedom of expression, allowing national demands to surface in several republics and autonomous regions.[5] It was in this new climate that the regional Soviet of Nagorno-Karabakh (a majority-Armenian region) formally requested to be transferred to the Armenian SSR—an event that triggered the first post-Soviet conflict: the First Nagorno-Karabakh War.

Russian irredentism

[edit]
Main article: Russian irredentism

After the fall of the USSR, 25 million Russians found themselves outside the borders of the newly formed Russian Federation.[6] Despite this event which could have triggered the emergence of irredentist sentiment, the Russian political class showed almost no will of this type. This can be explained by the context of the time. Russia in the 1990s and early 2000s was grappling with significant internal problems, including economic crisis (linked to the transition to a market economy), constitutional crisis, internal war (Chechnya), dysfunctional public services, and more... These issues effectively relegated foreign policy to the sidelines.[7]

At the same time, several former Warsaw Pact countries joined NATO, viewing the alliance as a source of security and a path towards deeper integration with the West.[8] Russian leaders consistently condemned this expansion, perceiving it as a direct threat to Russia. In 1994, president Boris Yeltsin declared, "Our attitude towards NATO expansion plans [...] remains and will remain invariably negative. [...] This decision can lead to a deterioration of trust between Russia and Western countries."[9]

Despite these denunciations, the Russian government took little to no concrete actions to counter these waves of NATO expansion. On the contrary, cooperation was even established with the signing of a NATO-Russia Founding Act in 1997. This apparent contradiction between rhetoric and action can once again be attributed to the broader Russian context of the time: Russia had lost its superpower status and, as mentioned earlier, was in a concerning internal situation. To avoid completely losing its influence on the international stage, Russian leaders sought to fully integrate into the world order, which at the time was reflected in the desire to establish good relations with the United States, the hyperpower [es] of the era, hence the wish for positive relations with NATO.[10][11]

Putin's 2007 Munich speech is widely regarded as the turning point in Russian foreign policy.

Vladimir Putin's rise to power in 2000 marked a turning point in Russian domestic and foreign policy. Although he initially maintained the same approach as his predecessor regarding relations with the West, the stated goal was to restore the Russian state, weakened by the previous decade, and to strengthen its authority on the international stage. During his early terms, Putin primarily sought to economically revitalize the country, benefiting from the rise in hydrocarbons prices. Foreign policy remained relatively moderate, despite persistent tensions regarding NATO expansion and Western influence in the post-Soviet space. However, a major turning point occurred in 2007 with Vladimir Putin's speech at the Munich Security Conference. He openly denounced the unilateralism of the United States, criticized NATO expansion as a provocation, and reaffirmed Russia's intention to defend its strategic interests.[12][13] This speech is widely interpreted as the end of the cooperation phase and the beginning of a more aggressive foreign policy.

The first concrete manifestation of this new orientation occurred in 2008 with the Russo-Georgian War. For several years, Georgia, under the presidency of Mikheil Saakashvili, had expressed its desire to join Euro-Atlantic structures, even formally applying for NATO membership in April 2008.[14] This rapprochement was viewed negatively by Moscow, which saw the expansion of the Atlantic Alliance as a direct threat to its strategic interests in the Caucasus. On August 7, 2008, the situation deteriorated when Georgian authorities attempted to retake South Ossetia by force,[15][16] a separatist region supported by Russia since the 1990s. In response, Moscow took advantage of the situation and intervened militarily under the pretext of defending the Ossetian and Russian populations of the region.[17] After eight days of fighting, Georgia was forced to sign a ceasefire. Russia then recognized the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, two secessionist regions, and established permanent military bases there.[18] This conflict marked a decisive step: for the first time since the end of the Soviet Union, Russia explicitly used force to pressure a neighboring state to deter it from integrating into Western structures, thus asserting its role as a regional power and initiating a more pronounced shift towards irredentist policies.

The 2008 Russo-Georgian War constituted an important precedent, demonstrating that Russia was now prepared to use force to defend its post-Soviet sphere of influence. However, this intervention remained limited in its immediate territorial objectives, with Moscow content to recognize the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia without proceeding to formal annexation. The true conflict demonstrating Russia's irredentist and expansionist will was the Ukrainian conflict, which began in 2014 and intensified in 2022.

Column of Russian tanks entering Ukraine (March 2022)

In February 2014, the pro-European Maidan movement led to the ousting of President Viktor Yanukovych,[19] which Moscow perceived as a Western-backed coup.[20] In March, Russia annexed Crimea, a peninsula strategically important due to its majority Russian population and the presence of the Black Sea Fleet in Sevastopol. This action was widely condemned by the international community.[21] Simultaneously, pro-Russian separatist insurgencies erupted in eastern Ukraine, notably in the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts, indirectly supported by Moscow.[22] This dual movement—the annexation of Crimea and the destabilization of Donbass—marked a break with the more moderate policy of post-Soviet Russia, indicating a clear irredentist will.[23] The conflict then stabilized into a low-intensity war, punctuated by the Minsk agreements (2014 and 2015), without a real settlement. While Ukraine strengthened its ties with the European Union and NATO, Russia pursued a hybrid influence policy and consolidated its hold on Crimea. In February 2022, citing the protection of Russian-speaking populations, Moscow launched a large-scale invasion of Ukraine.[24] This invasion marked a major turning point in post-Soviet history: for the first time, Russia undertook a full-scale conventional war against a sovereign former Soviet state, implicitly claiming irredentist objectives and openly challenging the international order established after the end of the Cold War.

Frozen conflicts

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Main article: Frozen conflict

Some post-Soviet conflicts ended in a stalemate or without a peace treaty, and are referred to as frozen conflicts. This means that a number of post-Soviet states have sovereignty over the entirety of their territory in name only. In reality, they do not exercise full control over areas still under the control of rebel factions. In many instances, these territories have institutions which are similar to those of fully-fledged independent states, albeit with little or no international recognition, including Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia; Transnistria in Moldova; and previously, the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic in Ukraine.[25]

Recognition of these states varies. Transnistria has not received recognition from any UN member state, including Russia. Abkhazia and South Ossetia have received recognition from Russia, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Nauru and Syria. The Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republics had received recognition from Russia, Syria, and North Korea before their unrecognized annexation by Russia.

Central Asia

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Conflict Belligerents Start End Detail Fatalities
Tajikistani Civil War

Russia/ Russia
 Uzbekistan
Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic/ Kazakhstan
/ Kyrgyzstan Supported by:
 Belarus[27] (weapons supplies)
UNMOT

Afghanistan (until 1996)

Supported by:

5 May 1992 27 June 1997 Began when ethnic groups from the Gharm and Gorno-Badakhshan regions of Tajikistan, which were underrepresented in the ruling elite, rose up against the national government of President Rahmon Nabiyev, in which people from the Leninabad and Kulob regions dominated. The war ended with the signing of the General Agreement on the Establishment of Peace and National Accord in Tajikistan and the Moscow Protocol.[34] 20,000[35]–150,000[36] killed
Batken conflict  Kyrgyzstan
 Russia (material support)
 Uzbekistan (military support) 		Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan 30 July 1999 27 September 1999 Armed clashes between militants of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) and the Armed Forces of Kyrgyzstan 1,182 killed
Andijan massacre Government of Uzbekistan

Protesters in Andijan

Alleged supported by:
Hizb ut-Tahrir
Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan
Akromiya

13 May 2005 Protest and government massacre in the city of Andijan in Uzbekistan 187–1,500 killed
2010 Kyrgyz Revolution Government of Kyrgyzstan SDPK
Respublika
A.M.S.P
Ar-Namys
Ata-Zhurt
United Kyrgyzstan 		6 April 2010 15 April 2010 Also known as the People's April Revolution, the Melon Revolution or the April Events. Began with the ousting of Kyrgyz president Kurmanbek Bakiyev in the capital Bishkek. The violence ultimately led to the consolidation of a new parliamentary system in Kyrgyzstan.[37] 118 killed
2010 South Kyrgyzstan ethnic clashes  Kyrgyz provisional government

Supported by:
 Turkmenistan
 Iran
Kazakhstan Kazakhstan[38]
 China[39]
 Russia[40]
Turkey Turkey[41]
 United States[42]

Kyrgyzstani Kyrgyz gangs

Other pro- Bakiyev forces

Uzbekistani Kyrgyz1

Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (alleged)[48]

Kyrgyzstani Uzbeks

Uzbekistani Uzbek civilians1

 Uzbekistan[53] (limited involv.)2[55][56]

19 May 2010 June 2010 Clashes between ethnic Kyrgyz and Uzbeks in southern Kyrgyzstan, primarily in the cities of Osh and Jalal-Abad, in the aftermath of the ouster of former President Kurmanbek Bakiyev on April 7. 393–893 killed
Insurgency in Gorno-Badakhshan (2010–2015) Tajikistan Tajikistan United Tajik Opposition
19 September 2010 1 September 2015 Sporadic fighting in Tajikistan between rebel and government forces. 191–206 killed
Zhanaozen massacre Government of Kazakhstan Oil workers 16 December 2011 17 December 2011 Labor protest and government massacre in the city of Zhanaozen in Kazakhstan 14+ killed
2020 Dungan–Kazakh ethnic clashes Ethnic Dungans Ethnic Kazakhs 5 February 2020 8 February 2020 Clashes between ethnic Kazakhs and ethnic Dungans (a Muslim group with Chinese origins) in the village of Masanchi within the Korday District of Kazakhstan.[57] 11 killed[58]
2020 Kyrgyz Revolution Kyrgyzstan Government of Kyrgyzstan * Protesters
2021 Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan clashes  Kyrgyzstan  Tajikistan 28 April 2021 1 May 2021 Clashes between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan over water dispute.[61][62] 45 killed
2022 Kazakh unrest Government of Kazakhstan
 CSTO[n 1]		 Kazakh opposition
Protesters		 2 January 2022 11 January 2022 Protests across Kazakhstan that were sparked by an abrupt increase of gas prices, but have escalated into general protests. Kazakhstan's government has requested CSTO assistance in quelling the protests. 257 killed
2022 Karakalpak protests
Uzbekistan Government of Uzbekistan

Karakalpakstan Supreme Council of Karakalpakstan

 Karakalpakstan Protesters 1 July 2022 3 July 2022 Over proposed amendments by President Shavkat Mirziyoyev to the Constitution of Uzbekistan which would have ended Karakalpakstan's status as an autonomous region of Uzbekistan and right to secede from Uzbekistan via referendum. A day after protests had begun in the Karakalpak capital of Nukus, President Mirziyoyev withdrew the constitutional amendments. The Karakalpak government said that protesters had attempted to storm government buildings.[63] 21 killed
2022 Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan clashes  Kyrgyzstan  Tajikistan
Afghan mujahids[64][65][66] (per Kyrgyzstan)		 27 January 2022 20 September 2022 Clashes between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan 146 killed

North Caucasus

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See also: Wars in the Caucasus
The breakaway republics within the Caucasus region.
Conflict Belligerents Start End Detail Fatalities
East Prigorodny conflict North Ossetia
Russian Federation 		Ingushetia Ingush rebels 30 October 1992 6 November 1992 Inter-ethnic conflict in the Eastern part of the Prigorodny district. 600 killed[67]
First Chechen War  Russian Government
  • Loyalist opposition
  Chechen Republic of Ichkeria

Foreign volunteers:

11 December 1994 31 August 1996 Russian troops invaded after Chechnya declared independence, but withdrew in 1996 leading to a de facto Chechen independence. 46,500 killed[76]
War in Dagestan (1999)  Russia Islamic Djamaat of Dagestan

 Chechnya

7 August 1999 14 September 1999 The Islamic International Brigade invaded the neighbouring Russian republic of Dagestan in support of the Shura of Dagestan separatist movement. 2,775 killed
Second Chechen War  Russia Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (1999–2007)

Caucasus Emirate (2007–2009)

  • North Caucasian volunteers

Mujahideen[77][78][79][80] Grey Wolves[72][73]

7 August 1999 16 April 2009 Russia restores federal control of Chechnya. 20,500 killed[81]
Insurgency in Ingushetia Russia Russia Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (until October 2007)

Caucasus Emirate (from October 2007)

Ingushetia Ingush opposition (2007–2008)
ad hoc revenge groups

21 July 2007 19 May 2015 Separatist insurgency in Ingushetia. 871 killed
Insurgency in the North Caucasus  Russia
List
 Caucasus Emirate
(2009–17)
List

Islamic State

16 April 2009 19 December 2017 Separatist insurgency in Chechnya, Dagestan, and other parts of the North Caucasus region. 3,500 killed
Low-level Islamic State insurgency in the North Caucasus

Other Islamist groups and lone wolves

20 December 2017 Present ongoing terror activity of the Islamic State branch in the North Caucasus after the insurgency of the Caucasus Emirate. 250+ killed

South Caucasus

[edit]
Conflict Belligerents Start End Detail Fatalities
First Nagorno-Karabakh War
Foreign groups:
Foreign groups:
 20 February 1988 12 May 1994 The secessionist conflict leads to de facto independence of Republic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh Republic). 28,000–38,000 killed[110]
South Ossetia war (1991–1992) Georgia (country) Georgia
(1992) 		5 January 1991 24 June 1992 The separatist conflict leads to South Ossetia's de facto independence from Georgia. 1,000 killed[112]
1991–1992 Georgian coup d'état Georgia (country) Rebel factions of the National Guard
Mkhedrioni
Tetri Artsivi
Merab Kostava Society
Union of Afghans
Replaced on 2 January by:
Georgia (country) Military Council
Supported by:
 Russia
 Georgia (country) National Guard of Georgia
Black Pantyhose Battalion
Lemi
Supported by:
 Chechnya 		22 December 1991 6 January 1992 A military coup against Georgian President Zviad Gamsakhurdia results in him fleeing to Chechnya 113 killed
Georgian Civil War
Georgia (country) Pro-Gamsakhurdia forces

Supported by:
Chechen Republic of Ichkeria Chechen Republic of Ichkeria

Georgia (country) Pro-Shevardnadze forces

Supported by:
 Russia

6 January 1992 31 December 1993 A civil war between the post-coup Georgian government of Eduard Shevardnadze and supporters of ousted President Zviad Gamsakhurdia results in Gamsakhurdia's defeat with Russian military support for Shevardnadze. 2,000 killed (including coup)[115]
War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)  Georgia Abkhazia Abkhazia
Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus

Supported by:
 Russia[d]

14 August 1992 30 September 1993[116][e] Abkhaz separatism leads to the de facto independence of Abkhazia from Georgia. 10,000–30,000 killed[118]
Ganja Uprising

Huseynov militia
Supported by:
 Russia

Azerbaijani Government
APFP 		4 June 1993 15 June 1993 A mutiny against Azerbaijani President Abulfaz Elchibey replaces him with Heydar Aliyev Unknown
1995 Azerbaijani coup attempt Special Purpose Police Unit
Turkish putschists
Supported by:
Nationalist Movement Party[119] 		Government of Azerbaijan

Supported by:
Turkey Government of Turkey

13 March 1995 17 March 1996 A failed attempt to reinstall former president Abulfaz Elchibey 31 killed
War in Abkhazia (1998)  Georgian separatists  Abkhazia 18 May 1998 26 May 1998 Ethnic Georgians launched an insurgency against the Abkhazian secessionist government. 100 killed[120]
1998 Georgian attempted mutiny Georgian Government
Georgian Army
Georgian Police 		Mutineers from the Senaki Military Brigade
Zviadists 		18 October 1998 19 October 1998 An abortive mutiny led by pro-Gamsakhurdia officers from the Senaki Military Brigade to remove new President Eduard Shevardnadze from power. 5 killed[121]
2001 Kodori crisis Chechen division under Gelayev
Georgian guerrillas[122] 		 Abkhazia 4 October 2001 18 October 2001 Georgian guerrillas unsuccessfully try to regain control over Abkhazia with the help of Chechen fighters. At least 40 killed[123]
Pankisi Gorge crisis Georgia (country) Georgia
Supported by:
 United States
 Russia 		Chechen Republic of Ichkeria Chechen separatists
Mujahideen in Chechnya
Other jihadists 		November 2000 October 2002[f] An incursion by Al-Qaeda forces into Georgia on behalf of Chechen rebels fighting in the North Caucasus. They were forced out in 2004 by Georgian forces with American and Russian backing. Unknown
2004 South Ossetian clashes Georgia (country) Georgia South Ossetia South Ossetia
Russia Russia 		7 July 2004 5 November 2004 Clashes between Georgian and South Ossetian troops result in several deaths. 22 killed
2006 Kodori crisis Georgia (country) Georgia Georgia (country) Monadire 22 July 2006 28 July 2006 Georgian police and special forces drive a local rebellious militia out of the Georgian-controlled Kodori Valley in Abkhazia. 1 killed
Russo-Georgian War
 Georgia 1 August 2008 16 August 2008 A war between Georgia on one side and Russia, South Ossetia and Abkhazia on the other side confirms the de facto independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and leads to their recognition by Russia and Nicaragua.[125] 500 killed[126]
2009 Georgian mutiny Georgian Army
Georgian Police 		Mutineers from the Mukhrovani Separate Tank Battalion 5 May 2009 5 May 2009 An alleged abortive mutiny by a Georgian Army tank battalion based in Mukhrovani village with a goal of removing President Saakashvili from power. None killed
2010 Mardakert clashes  Azerbaijan  Nagorno-Karabakh
 Armenia 		18 June 2010 1 September 2010 Sporadic border war on the Armenian–Azerbaijan border and at the line of contact between the Nagorno-Karabakh and Azerbaijan. 7–8 killed
2014 Abkhazian Revolution Anti-Ankvab protesters Government of President 27 May 2014 1 June 2014 Series of protests that resulted in the resignation of then President Alexander Ankvab None killed
2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict  Azerbaijan  Artsakh
 Armenia 		1 April 2016 5 April 2016 Armenian and Azerbaijani forces fight a four-day long conflict along the border of the unrecognized Republic of Artsakh. Azerbaijani forces make minor territorial gains, some of which are retaken by Armenian forces before the end of the conflict. 400–1,600 killed
July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes  Azerbaijan  Armenia 12 July 2020 16 July 2020 Armenian and Azerbaijani forces engage in border clashes along the Tavush Province of Armenia and Tovuz District of Azerbaijan. The death of Azerbaijani major general Polad Hashimov sparks the July 2020 Azerbaijani protests. Turkey and Azerbaijan organize large-scale military exercises following the clashes, and tensions persist until the beginning of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War 2 months later. 29–133 killed
Second Nagorno-Karabakh War  Azerbaijan
 Turkey (alleged by Armenia)[127][128][129]
Syrian opposition Syrian mercenaries[g][133][134] 		 Artsakh
 Armenia 		27 September 2020 10 November 2020 Azerbaijan retakes most of the territories previously controlled by the Republic of Artsakh. Russian peacekeepers introduced into the remaining disputed area. 7,000 killed[135]
Armenia–Azerbaijan border crisis  Azerbaijan  Armenia 12 May 2021 present Border clashes between Azerbaijan and Armenia. 353 killed
Blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh  Azerbaijan Russia Russian peacekeepers

 Artsakh

12 December 2022 30 September 2023 Azerbaijan blockades the Republic of Artsakh. Unknown
2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh Azerbaijan[h] Artsakh[i] 19 September 2023 20 September 2023 Azerbaijan launches an attack on the Republic of Artsakh after nine months of blockade. The Artsakh Defence Army disbands, the government of the Republic of Artsakh agrees to dissolve itself entirely by January 1, 2024, and almost the entire population of Artsakh flees to Armenia. 200 killed[136]
2024 Abkhazian Protests Abkhazia Coordination Council for Overcoming the Political Crisis: Abkhazia Government:

Supported by:

1 November 2024 19 November 2024 Demonstrations and protests led to the resignation of President Aslan Bzhania and Prime Minister Alexander Ankvab None Killed

Eastern Europe

[edit]
Conflict Belligerents Start End Detail Fatalities
Gagauzia conflict Gagauz Republic Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic/ Moldavian SSR (until 1991)
 Moldova (from 1991) 		12 November 1989 14 January 1995 Ended in the reintegration of Gagauzia into Moldova as an autonomous region. Unknown
Transnistria conflict  Transnistria
 Moldova
2 September 1990 present Ongoing political conflict. Its major escalation was the Transnistria War of 1992. Unknown
Transnistria War
/ Moldova[j]
Supported by:
 Romania 		2 November 1990 21 July 1992 The Transnistria War started due to fear from Transnistria's population to a potential unification of Moldova with Romania. Heavy fighting started on 1 March 1992 and culminated on 21 July, and a ceasefire has been in place since 1992; Russian forces are illegally stationed in Moldova ever since. 1,000 killed
1993 Russian constitutional crisis Russia Presidential forces:
  • Pro-Yeltsin demonstrators and organizations
  • Russia Federalists and anti-communists
Diplomatic support:
[152][153]
 Russia Parliamentary forces:

Anti-Yeltsin opposition:

Support:
 21 September 1993 4 October 1993 Political stand-off between the Russian president and the Russian parliament that was resolved by using military force. 147 killed
Euromaidan and the Revolution of Dignity Government of Ukraine

Pro-government groups

Parties

Supported by:
 Russia

Anti-government protesters
21 November 2013 22 February 2014 Euromaidan is the name given to civil unrest that started when the Ukrainian government cancelled an association agreement with the EU in favour of closer ties with Russia. The protests escalated and led to the Revolution of Dignity, which toppled the Ukrainian government. 121 killed
Russian invasion of Crimea
27 February 2014[note 4]  26 March 2014 In February 2014, Russia invaded Crimea. In March, following the takeover of Crimea by pro-Russian separatists and Russian Armed Forces,[194] a referendum (not recognised by the new Ukrainian authorities)[195] was held on the issue of reunification with Russia.[196] This took place in the aftermath of the Revolution of Dignity.[197] Russia then annexed Crimea on 18 March. 3 killed
2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine Donetsk People's RepublicLuhansk People's Republic Pro-Russian separatists
 Russia 		 Ukraine 23 February 2014 2 May 2014 As a result of the revolution in Kyiv, a pro-Russian unrest in the eastern regions of the country escalated into mass protests and violence between the pro-Russian and pro-Ukrainian activists. In Crimea, the events served as a pretext for a Russian annexation of the region. In Donbas, the situation quickly escalated into a war. Protests in other regions included seizure of government buildings in Kharkiv and deadly clashes in Odesa. Unknown
War in Donbas  Donetsk People's Republic
 Luhansk People's Republic
 Russia

 Ukraine

12 April 2014 24 February 2022[l] As a result of the unrest, a full-fledged war began in the Ukrainian Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts, known collectively as Donbas. The separatist "people's republics" captured a strip of land on the border with Russia. Major combat ended with the signing of the second Minsk agreements in early 2015, with a stalemate lasting until the start of the full-scale invasion by Russia of February 2022. 14,000 killed[198]
Russian invasion of Ukraine
 Ukraine 24 February 2022  present On 24 February 2022, the Russo-Ukrainian War escalated when Russian forces began bombing Ukrainian cities. After the bombings, Russian troops launched an operation on Ukrainian soil and began sending in troops on Ukrainian territory, launching a 'full-scale' invasion. This invasion was supported militarily by the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic and non-militarily by Belarus. Ukraine received military aid from the United States, the European Union, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and other countries from the Western world. On 30 September 2022, Russia, amid an ongoing invasion, annexed four oblasts of Ukraine – Luhansk, Donetsk, Zaporizhzhia and Kherson, which were not fully under Russian control at the time. The annexation is the largest in Europe since World War II, surpassing Russia's 2014 annexation of Crimea. See fatalities
2023 Belgorod Oblast incursions  Russia Russian opposition
Belarusian militant groups
Polish militant groups
Chechen militant groups
 Ukraine (alleged by Russia, denied by Ukraine)[o] 		22 May 2023 17 December 2023 Pro-Ukrainian armed rebels invasion of Russia Unknown
Wagner Group rebellion  Russia  PMC Wagner 23 June 2023 24 June 2023 Mutiny of Wagner PMC against the Russian government 15–31 killed
March 2024 western Russia incursion  Russia  Ukraine[203]
Russian Opposition 		12 March 2024 7 April 2024 Pro Ukrainian Groups And Russian Opposition Groups Invading Western Russia In The Belgorod And Kursk Oblasts Unknown (both sides casualties are highly inflated)
Kursk offensive (2024–2025)  Russia
 North Korea[p] 		 Ukraine 6 August 2024 16 March 2025 Ukrainian occupation of Kursk Oblast Around 20,000-30,000 Killed and Wounded

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Soviet authorities generally sided with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh.[90] Soviet troops were present in Nagorno-Karabakh for 2+1⁄2 years and supported Azerbaijani militias.[91] Soviet troops directly intervened during Operation Ring in April–May 1991 on the Azerbaijani side.[92][93]
  2. ^ Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) until 1991.
  3. ^ Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Armenia) until 1990 (renamed Republic of Armenia)/1991 (declared independence).
  4. ^ See Russia's role in the conflict section for more details
  5. ^ Ceasefire agreement was signed on 1 December 1993,[117] although fighting continued during 1994.
  6. ^ The International Crisis Behaviour Project at Duke University defines the crisis as having lasted from 27 July 2002, the date of an attack by Chechen separatists on Russian forces at Itum-Kale in Russia, to 7 October 2002, when Russia and Georgia agreed to joint patrols on their mutual border.[124] This period also included Russian airstrikes on Georgian territory, Georgia's most consequential security operation in the Gorge, and the final exit of Ruslan Gelayev. There had been an armed separatist presence in the Gorge since 1999, and Russia's forceful objections begun, at the latest, in November 2002. Russia's first coercive measures against Georgia took place the next month.
  7. ^ Denied by Azerbaijan[130][131] and Turkey.[132]
  8. ^ See § Foreign involvement for more details.
  9. ^ See § Foreign involvement for more details.
  10. ^ Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova until 23 May 1991. Constituent republic of the Soviet Union until 27 August 1991.
  11. ^ Transnistria is a separatist and internationally unrecognized de facto state, regarded as Moldovan territory by all United Nations members.
  12. ^ War escalated as Russia invaded Ukraine on 24 February 2022, however the term "war in Donbas" is not generally used for events occurring after the invasion started.
  13. ^ a b The Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic were Russian puppet states, having declared their independence from Ukraine in May 2014. Several months into the invasion, Russia declared that it had formally annexed both entities in September 2022. They continue to exist as republics of Russia.
  14. ^ In 2022, Belarus allowed Russia to use its territory to launch the invasion[199][200][201] and to launch missiles into Ukraine.[202] See: Belarusian involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
  15. ^ See § Ukrainian involvement for more details.
  16. ^ From November 2024[204]
  1. ^ South Ossetia's status is disputed. It considers itself to be an independent state, but this is recognised by only a few other countries. The Georgian government and most of the world's other states consider South Ossetia de jure a part of Georgia's territory.
  2. ^ The political status of Abkhazia is disputed. Having unilaterally declared independence from Georgia in 1992, Abkhazia is formally recognised as an independent state by 5 UN member states (two other states previously recognised it but then withdrew their recognition), while the remainder of the international community recognizes it as de jure Georgian territory. Georgia continues to claim the area as its own territory, designating it as Russian-occupied territory.
  3. ^ Supporters of Alexander Rutskoy, the Supreme Soviet and the Congress of People's Deputies frequently used those flags. The Russian tricolor itself only remained hoisted at the White House building (see video documentary Archived July 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).
  4. ^ There are "some contradictions and inherent problems" regarding the date on which the Russian operation began.[185] The Ukrainian Government maintains, and the European Court of Human Rights agrees, that Russia controlled Crimea from 27 February 2014,[186] when unmarked Russian special forces took control of its political institutions.[187] The Russian Government later made 27 February "Special Operations Forces Day".[188] In 2015, the Ukrainian parliament officially designated 20 February 2014 as "the beginning of the temporary occupation of Crimea and Sevastopol by Russia",[189] citing the date inscribed on the Russian medal "For the Return of Crimea".[190] In 2018, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov claimed that the earlier "start date" on the medal was due to a "technical misunderstanding".[191] President Putin stated in a film about the annexation that he ordered the operation to "restore" Crimea to Russia following an all-night emergency meeting on 22–23 February 2014.[185][192][193]
  1. ^ Reports of some protesters attending under duress from superiors[159]
  2. ^ Titushky are provocators during protests.[163]
  3. ^ Early November 2012 Communist Party party leader Petro Symonenko stated that his party will not co-operate with other parties in the new parliament elected in the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election.[183] Nevertheless, in at the time in parliament its parliamentary faction usually voted similarly to the Party of Regions parliamentary faction.[184]

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  147. ^ "Ukraine's stance on Transnistria remains unchanged – Zelensky". Ukrinform. 12 January 2021.
  148. ^ "Ukraine helps Moldova regain control over border in Transnistrian region". Euromaidan Press. 21 July 2017.
  149. ^ De La Pedraja, René (2018). The Russian Military Resurgence: Post-Soviet Decline and Rebuilding, 1992–2018. McFarland. pp. 93–94. ISBN 9781476634494. This response was too much for the commander of the 14th Army General Yuri Netkachev, who ordered Russian troops to drive out the Moldovan forces. The 14th Army had always supported the separatists since the very beginning, but this direct support was the first open participation in combat. ... The participation of the 14th Army was indispensable for the victory of the separatists, ... Moldovan forces were concentrated in a forest near Bender, and Lebed decided to stop their advance by relying on his powerful artillery. At 0300 on 3 July massive barrages rained down on the unsuspecting Moldovans ...
  150. ^ de Waal, Thomas (2018). Uncertain Ground: Engaging with Europe's De Facto States and Breakaway Territories (PDF). Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. p. 39. Neither side had a proper military force. The intervention of the Russian Fourteenth Army and its commander General Alexander Lebed on behalf of the Transdniestrians was decisive.
  151. ^ Kosienkowski, Marcin; Schreiber, William (8 May 2012). Moldova: Arena of International Influences. Lexington. ISBN 9780739173923. Retrieved 2022-09-04.
  152. ^ "Russia's New Foreign Policy" (PDF). American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research. p. 5. Retrieved 10 February 2023. Hence their wholehearted support for Yeltsin in his September–October 1993 confrontation with the Left-nationalist radical supporters of the Supreme Soviet. The Czech President Václav Havel said October 4 that the clashes in Moscow were not simply 'a power struggle, but rather a fight between democracy and totalitarianism.' In a joint statement Presidents Lennart Meri of Estonia, Guntis Ulmanis of Latvia, and Algirdas Brazauskas of Lithuania called the struggle in Moscow 'a contest between a democratically elected President and antidemocratic power structures.' Their Moldovan counterpart, Mircea Snegur, called the Supreme Soviet supporters 'Communist, imperialist forces who want to turn Russia into a concentration camp'. 'In my thoughts I am on the barricades with the defenders of Russian democracy, as I was next to them in August 1991,' Eduard Shevardnadze said in a message to the Kremlin on the late afternoon of October 3, 1993, when the outcome looked quite grim for Yeltsin. 'Deeply concerned about the events in Moscow, I am again expressing my resolute support for President Yeltsin and his allies.'
  153. ^ "Yeltsin Receives Widespread Backing for Assault". The Washington Post. 4 October 1993. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
  154. ^ "'Russian Revolution of October 1993' seen from office of Moldova's ambassador in Moscow. Op-Ed by Anatol Țăranu, ex-ambassador of Moldova to Russia". IPN press agency. 2023-09-28. Retrieved 2024-01-22. Unlike Chisinau, the leaders of the Transnistrian separatists supported almost openly the Rutskoy-Khasbulatov camp, sending paramilitaries from Transnistria to the Russian capital to defend the White House. On October 4, the Moldovan ambassador in Moscow gave an interview for the Russian press, in which he warned about the presence of representatives of paramilitary detachments of the Transnistrian separatists among the defenders of the White House.
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  156. ^ Під час штурму Банкової постраждали вже 15 правоохоронців [During the storming of Bankova, 15 law enforcement officers were injured]. TVi (in Ukrainian). 1 December 2013. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014.
  157. ^ Golitsina, Natalya (3 April 2014). "Photos Link Yanukovych's Troops To Maidan Massacre". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 28 November 2022. Retrieved 2022-11-28.
  158. ^ Митинг в поддержку действий президента по защите национальных интересов Украины прошел в Харькове [Rally in support of the president's actions to protect the national interests of Ukraine took place in Kharkiv] (in Russian). Interfax-Ukraine. 30 November 2013. Archived from the original on 26 June 2020. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
  159. ^ Днепропетровских бюджетников заставляют ехать в Киев на 'Антимайдан' [Dnipropetrovsk state employees are forced to go to Kyiv to 'Antimaydan']. comments.ua (in Russian). UA: Comments. 12 December 2013. Archived from the original on 14 December 2013. Retrieved 15 December 2013.
  160. ^ Кожного привезеного на столичний "антимайдан" ошукали на 500 грн [Everyone brought to the capital's "anti-Maidan" was deceived for UAH 500]. Gazeta (in Russian). 14 December 2013. Archived from the original on 13 August 2020. Retrieved 15 December 2013.
  161. ^ На Євроманда "тітушки" йдуть з металевими трубами ["Aunts" go to Euromand with metal pipes] (in Ukrainian). Kyiv Comments. 29 November 2013. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 29 November 2013.
  162. ^ 'Анти-євромайдан' завершився. 'Тітушки' чекають відмашки 'стартувати' на Майдан? ['Anti-Euromaidan' is over. Are 'aunts' waiting for the 'start' on the Maidan?]. Ukrayinska Pravda (in Ukrainian). 29 November 2013. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
  163. ^ "Tyagnibok Zaproponuvav rozformuvati Berkut" [Tiagnybok offered to disband 'Berkut']. Ukrainian National News. 2 December 2013. Archived from the original on 7 February 2015.
  164. ^ Responsibility for burning private vehicles of protesters was taken by the Red Sector Archived 1 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine. TVi. 1 February 2014
  165. ^ "From Russia, 'Tourists' Stir the Protests". The New York Times. 3 March 2014. Archived from the original on 4 March 2014. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
  166. ^ "Meet Moscow's New "Ukrainian Front" | The XX Committee". 20committee.com. 3 February 2014. Archived from the original on 25 February 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
  167. ^ Luhansk administration is being guarded by Don Cossacks Archived 1 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine. 24tv. 26 January 2014
  168. ^ "Друг Путина Хирург вывел байкеров на баррикады | Украинская правда" [Putin's friend Surgeon takes bikers to barricades | Ukrainian Pravda]. Pravda.com.ua. Archived from the original on 2 March 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
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  170. ^ "Українські студенти підтримали Євромайдан. У Києві та регіонах – страйки" [Ukrainian students supported Yevromaydan. In Kyiv and regions – Strikes]. NEWSru. UA. 26 November 2013. Archived from the original on 27 January 2016.
  171. ^ "Ukraine crisis: Key players". BBC News. 2014-01-27. Archived from the original on 1 April 2016. Retrieved 2022-11-28.
  172. ^ "Kiev's protesters: Ukraine uprising was no neo-Nazi power-grab". The Guardian. 2014-03-13. Archived from the original on 18 June 2024. Retrieved 2022-11-28.
  173. ^ Свобода, Радіо (19 January 2014). ""Правий сектор" підтверджує свою участь у подіях на Грушевського". Радіо Свобода (in Ukrainian). Archived from the original on 28 November 2022. Retrieved 2022-11-28.
  174. ^ На Евромайдане в Киеве собрались десятки тысяч украинцев [Euromaydan in Kyiv gathered tens of thousands of Ukrainians] (in Russian). Korrespondent.net. 24 November 2013. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  175. ^ "Mr Akhtem Chiygoz: "Crimean Tatars Leave Actively to Kyiv on Maidan Nezalezhnosti"". 3 December 2013. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2014.
  176. ^ Ivakhnenko, Vladimir (6 December 2013). Майдан готовит Януковичу вече [Square prepare Yanukovych Veche]. Svoboda (in Russian). Archived from the original on 8 December 2013. Retrieved 8 December 2013.
  177. ^ Об'єднані ліві йдуть з Майдану (tr. "The United Left is leaving the Maidan") Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine (18 March 2014)
  178. ^ "Danyluks group under fire for seizure of government buildings". Kyiv Post. Archived from the original on 28 January 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  179. ^ В'ячеслав Березовський: Євромайдани України стали потужним об'єднавчим чинником [Vyacheslav Berezovsky: Euromaydan Ukraine became a powerful unifying factor] (in Ukrainian). UA: Cun. 2 December 2013. Archived from the original on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  180. ^ Hrytsenko, Anya (30 September 2016). "Misanthropic Division: A Neo-Nazi Movement from Ukraine and Russia". Euromaidan Press. Archived from the original on 2 October 2016. Retrieved 20 July 2022.
  181. ^ Novogrod, James (21 February 2014). "Dozens of Ukrainian Police Defect, Vow to Protect Protesters". NBC News. Archived from the original on 27 June 2023. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
  182. ^ Nemtsova, Anna (13 December 2013). "Kiev's Military Guardian Angels". The Daily Beast. Archived from the original on 16 December 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
  183. ^ "Ukrainian communists not to join other political forces in new parliament, says Symonenko". Interfax-Ukraine. 8 November 2012. Archived from the original on 11 December 2013. Retrieved 4 December 2013.
  184. ^ "Result of parliamentary votes" (in Ukrainian). Verkhovna Rada. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  185. ^ a b McDermott, Roger N. (2016). "Brothers Disunited: Russia's use of military power in Ukraine". In Black, J.L.; Johns, Michael (eds.). The Return of the Cold War: Ukraine, the West and Russia. London: Routledge. pp. 99–129. doi:10.4324/9781315684567-5. ISBN 978-1-138-92409-3. OCLC 909325250.
  186. ^ "Ukraine v. Russia (re Crimea) (decision)". European Court of Human Rights. January 2021. The Ukrainian Government maintains that the Russian Federation has from 27 February 2014 exercised effective control over the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the city of Sevastopol ... There was sufficient evidence that during the relevant period the respondent State [Russia] had exercised effective control over Crimea.
  187. ^ Sasse, Gwendolyn (2023). Russia's War Against Ukraine. Wiley & Sons. p. 2004. Russia's war against Ukraine began with the annexation of Crimea on 27 February 2014. On that day, Russian special forces without any uniform insignia appeared in Crimea, quickly taking control of strategic, military and political institutions.
  188. ^ DeBenedictis, Kent (2022). Russian 'Hybrid Warfare' and the Annexation of Crimea. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 140. During the night of 26–27 February, Russian special forces without insignia departed Sevastopol ... They arrived at the Crimean Rada and Council of Ministers buildings in Simferopol, disarmed the security and took control of the buildings ... Putin later signed a decree designating 27 February as Special Operations Forces Day in Russia.
  189. ^ "'Няша' Поклонська обіцяє бійцям 'Беркута' покарати учасників Майдану". www.segodnya.ua (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 3 February 2022.
  190. ^ "7683rd meeting of the United Nations Security Council. Thursday, 28 April 2016, 3 p.m. New York". Mr. Prystaiko (Ukraine): I have to remind the Council that the official medal that was produced by the Russian Federation for the so-called return of Crimea has the dates on it, starting with 20 February, which is the day before that agreement was brought to the attention of the Security Council by the representative of the Russian Federation. Therefore, the Russian Federation started – not just planned, but started – the annexation of Crimea the day before we reached the first agreement and while President Yanukovych was still in power.
  191. ^ "Russia's Orwellian 'diplomacy'". unian.info. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
  192. ^ "Putin reveals secrets of Russia's Crimea takeover plot". BBC News. 9 March 2015.
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  194. ^ "Meeting of the Valdai International Discussion Club". Kremlin.ru. 2014-10-24. Archived from the original on 2015-04-15. I will be frank; we used our Armed Forces to block Ukrainian units stationed in Crimea
  195. ^ "Treasury Designates Seven Individuals And One Entity Contributing To The Situation In Ukraine". US Treasury. 11 April 2014.
  196. ^ "Crimea applies to be part of Russian Federation after vote to leave Ukraine". The Guardian. 17 March 2014.
  197. ^ Simon Shuster (10 March 2014). "Putin's Man in Crimea Is Ukraine's Worst Nightmare". Time. Retrieved 8 March 2015. Before dawn on Feb. 27, at least two dozen heavily armed men stormed the Crimean parliament building and the nearby headquarters of the regional government, bringing with them a cache of assault rifles and rocket propelled grenades. A few hours later, Aksyonov walked into the parliament and, after a brief round of talks with the gunmen, began to gather a quorum of the chamber's lawmakers.
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  202. ^ "Missiles launched into Ukraine from Belarus". BBC News. 27 February 2022. Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  203. ^ "On Cam: Russian Missile Shoots Down Ukrainian Mi-8; Helicopter Heading Towards Belgorod Burns". Hindustan Times. 17 March 2024.
  204. ^ "Ukraine reports first clash with North Korean troops". DW. 2 November 2024. Archived from the original on 7 November 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2024.
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