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Review
. 2023 Oct 9;10(10):CD015144.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD015144.

Communication to promote and support physical distancing for COVID-19 prevention and control

Rebecca E Ryan  1 , Charlotte Silke  2 , Anne Parkhill  1 , Ariane Virgona  1 , Bronwen Merner  1 , Shauna Hurley  3 , Louisa Walsh  1   4   5 , Caroline de Moel-Mandel  6 , Lina Schonfeld  1 , Adrian Gk Edwards  7   8 , Jessica Kaufman  1   9 , Alison Cooper  7   8 , Rachel Kar Yee Chung  10 , Karla Solo  11 , Margaret Hellard  5 , Gian Luca Di Tanna  12   13 , Alisa Pedrana  5 , Freya Saich  5 , Sophie Hill  1
Affiliations
Review

Communication to promote and support physical distancing for COVID-19 prevention and control

Rebecca E Ryan et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: This review is an update of a rapid review undertaken in 2020 to identify relevant, feasible and effective communication approaches to promote acceptance, uptake and adherence to physical distancing measures for COVID-19 prevention and control. The rapid review was published when little was known about transmission, treatment or future vaccination, and when physical distancing measures (isolation, quarantine, contact tracing, crowd avoidance, work and school measures) were the cornerstone of public health responses globally. This updated review includes more recent evidence to extend what we know about effective pandemic public health communication. This includes considerations of changes needed over time to maintain responsiveness to pandemic transmission waves, the (in)equities and variable needs of groups within communities due to the pandemic, and highlights again the critical role of effective communication as integral to the public health response.

Objectives: To update the evidence on the question 'What are relevant, feasible and effective communication approaches to promote acceptance, uptake and adherence to physical distancing measures for COVID-19 prevention and control?', our primary focus was communication approaches to promote and support acceptance, uptake and adherence to physical distancing.

Secondary objective: to explore and identify key elements of effective communication for physical distancing measures for different (diverse) populations and groups.

Search methods: We searched MEDLINE, Embase and Cochrane Library databases from inception, with searches for this update including the period 1 January 2020 to 18 August 2021. Systematic review and study repositories and grey literature sources were searched in August 2021 and guidelines identified for the eCOVID19 Recommendations Map were screened (November 2021).

Selection criteria: Guidelines or reviews focusing on communication (information, education, reminders, facilitating decision-making, skills acquisition, supporting behaviour change, support, involvement in decision-making) related to physical distancing measures for prevention and/or control of COVID-19 or selected other diseases (sudden acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), influenza, Ebola virus disease (EVD) or tuberculosis (TB)) were included. New evidence was added to guidelines, reviews and primary studies included in the 2020 review.

Data collection and analysis: Methods were based on the original rapid review, using methods developed by McMaster University and informed by Cochrane rapid review guidance. Screening, data extraction, quality assessment and synthesis were conducted by one author and checked by a second author. Synthesis of results was conducted using modified framework analysis, with themes from the original review used as an initial framework.

Main results: This review update includes 68 studies, with 17 guidelines and 20 reviews added to the original 31 studies. Synthesis identified six major themes, which can be used to inform policy and decision-making related to planning and implementing communication about a public health emergency and measures to protect the community. Theme 1: Strengthening public trust and countering misinformation: essential foundations for effective public health communication Recognising the key role of public trust is essential. Working to build and maintain trust over time underpins the success of public health communications and, therefore, the effectiveness of public health prevention measures. Theme 2: Two-way communication: involving communities to improve the dissemination, accessibility and acceptability of information Two-way communication (engagement) with the public is needed over the course of a public health emergency: at first, recognition of a health threat (despite uncertainties), and regularly as public health measures are introduced or adjusted. Engagement needs to be embedded at all stages of the response and inform tailoring of communications and implementation of public health measures over time. Theme 3: Development of and preparation for public communication: target audience, equity and tailoring Communication and information must be tailored to reach all groups within populations, and explicitly consider existing inequities and the needs of disadvantaged groups, including those who are underserved, vulnerable, from diverse cultural or language groups, or who have lower educational attainment. Awareness that implementing public health measures may magnify existing or emerging inequities is also needed in response planning, enactment and adjustment over time. Theme 4: Public communication features: content, timing and duration, delivery Public communication needs to be based on clear, consistent, actionable and timely (up-to-date) information about preventive measures, including the benefits (whether for individual, social groupings or wider society), harms (likewise) and rationale for use, and include information about supports available to help follow recommended measures. Communication needs to occur through multiple channels and/or formats to build public trust and reach more of the community. Theme 5: Supporting behaviour change at individual and population levels Supporting implementation of public health measures with practical supports and services (e.g. essential supplies, financial support) is critical. Information about available supports must be widely disseminated and well understood. Supports and communication related to them require flexibility and tailoring to explicitly consider community needs, including those of vulnerable groups. Proactively monitoring and countering stigma related to preventive measures (e.g. quarantine) is also necessary to support adherence. Theme 6: Fostering and sustaining receptiveness and responsiveness to public health communication Efforts to foster and sustain public receptiveness and responsiveness to public health communication are needed throughout a public health emergency. Trust, acceptance and behaviours change over time, and communication needs to be adaptive and responsive to these changing needs. Ongoing community engagement efforts should inform communication and public health response measures.

Authors' conclusions: Implications for practice Evidence highlights the critical role of communication throughout a public health emergency. Like any intervention, communication can be done well or poorly, but the consequences of poor communication during a pandemic may mean the difference between life and death. The approaches to effective communication identified in this review can be used by policymakers and decision-makers, working closely with communication teams, to plan, implement and adjust public communications over the course of a public health emergency like the COVID-19 pandemic. Implications for research Despite massive growth in research during the COVID-19 period, gaps in the evidence persist and require high-quality, meaningful research. This includes investigating the experiences of people at heightened COVID-19 risk, and identifying barriers to implementing public communication and protective health measures particular to lower- and middle-income countries, and how to overcome these.

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Conflict of interest statement

Rebecca Ryan: no relevant interests; Coordinating Editor, Cochrane Consumers and Communication.

Charlotte Silke: none known.

Anne Parkhill: none known.

Ariane Virgona: none known.

Bronwen Merner: no relevant interests; joint Managing Editor for Cochrane Consumers and Communication from 2016 to June 2021.

Shauna Hurley: no relevant interests; adviser to Cochrane's Editor in Chief and as Communications Manager for Cochrane Australia.

Louisa Walsh: Gilead Sciences Inc (Consultant); shared my own opinions and comments on my own social media regarding consumer engagement in health service design and health service research; registered physiotherapist who works in health service research and teaches subjects in physiotherapy and public health degrees; consulting work for Consumers Health Forum of Australia (an ongoing relationship); Managing Editor of Cochrane Consumers and Communication; consumer representative, and have ongoing consumer roles with Consumers Health Forum of Australia and the Victorian Clinical Informatics Council (Department of Health).

Caroline de Moel: none known.

Lina Schonfeld: no relevant interests; Clinical Psychologist BSS Psychology.

Adrian GK Edwards: Wales COVID‐19 Evidence Centre (Grant/Contract); Cochrane Consumers and Communication Editor.

Jessica Kaufman: no relevant interests; Editor, Cochrane Consumers and Communication.

Alison Cooper: no relevant interests; General Practitioner, Rumney Primary Care Centre, Cardiff, UK Clinical Research Fellow, Cardiff University, UK.

Rachel Kar Yee Chung: none known.

Karla Solo: none known.

Margaret Hellard: no relevant interests; published opinion pieces and commentary related to COVID; Infectious Disease Physician, Alfred Hospital; .

Gian Luca Di Tanna: Gilead Sciences Inc (Consultant); works as a health professional at The George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales; Statistical Editor of Cochrane Consumer and Communication and Cochrane Breast Cancer.

Alisa Pedrana: Gilead Sciences Inc (Consultant); affiliated to the Burnet Institute ‐ provided advice to the Victorian Government about policy decisions for COVID‐19; Burnet Institute led a longitudinal cohort study on COVID‐19 (The Optimise Study) ‐ and we have published data from this study that may be relevant to this work; involved in the Optimise study received funding support from the Victorian Government Department of Jobs, Precincts and Regions, the Victorian Department of Health, the Macquarie Group Foundation, and Burnet Institute donors.

Freya Saich: Burnet Institute (Employment); Burnet Institute conducts social research into COVID‐19 through various studies; involved in the Optimise Study ‐ Victorian Government COVID‐19 Victorian Consortium, the Macquarie Group Foundation and Burnet Institute donors; the Optimise Study Longitudinal cohort study and social network study. It is a partnership between the Burnet Institute and the Doherty Institute in collaboration with University of Melbourne, Swinburne University of Technology, Monash University, La Trobe University, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, the Centre for Culture Ethnicity and Health, the Health Issues Centre and external collaborators including Alison Coelho.

Sophie Hill: no relevant interests; Cochrane Consumers and Communication Group, Joint Coordinating Editor, 2000‐June 2022.

Rebecca Ryan, Anne Parkill, Bronwen Merner, Louisa Walsh, Adrian Edwards, Gian luca Di Tanna and Sophie Hill have past or current editorial roles with the Cochrane Consumers and Communication Group. None were involved in the editorial processes for this review.

Figures

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1
PRISMA flow diagram to illustrate our study selection process for this update
2
2
Public trust
3
3
Facilitators of public trust
4
4
Public trust barriers
5
5
Misinformation
6
6
Community involvement in messaging
7
7
Community involvement in tailoring
8
8
Communication audience and setting
9
9
School settings for pandemic communication
10
10
Communication tailoring
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11
Equity in communication
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Equity: underserved and vulnerable populations
13
13
Equity: cultural barriers
14
14
Equity: community languages
15
15
Equity: educational inequality
16
16
Information and communication content
17
17
Inadequate or insufficient information effects
18
18
Public versus individual health benefit
19
19
Knowledge and attitudes over time
20
20
Communicating duration and rationale
21
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Multiple delivery mechanisms
22
22
Social attitudes and norms
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23
Stigma and lack of acceptance
24
24
Perceptions of vulnerability and risk
25
25
Provision of essential services
26
26
Financial insecurity and socioeconomic disadvantage
27
27
Pandemic fatigue
28
28
Changes over time
29
29
Adaptive and responsive communication
30
30
Community engagement for sustaining efforts
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    1. Szkwarko D, Hirsch-Moverman Y, Du Plessis L, Du Preez K, Carr C, Mandalakas AM. Child contact management in high tuberculosis burden countries: a mixed-methods systematic review. PLoS ONE 2017;12(8):e0182185. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0182185] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Teasdale 2014 {published data only}
    1. Teasdale E, Santer M, Geraghty AW, Little P, Yardley L. Public perceptions of non-pharmaceutical interventions for reducing transmission of respiratory infection: systematic review and synthesis of qualitative studies. BMC Public Health 2014;14(1):589. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-589] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Tooher 2013 {published data only}
    1. Tooher R, Collins JE, Street JM, Braunack‐Mayer A, Marshall H. Community knowledge, behaviours and attitudes about the 2009 H1N1 Influenza pandemic: a systematic review. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses 2013;7(6):1316-27. [DOI: 10.1111/irv.12103] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Webster 2020 {published data only}
    1. Webster K, Brooks SK, Smith LE, Woodland L, Wessely S, Rubin GJ. How to improve adherence with quarantine: rapid review of the evidence. Public Health 2020;182:163-9. - PMC - PubMed
WHO 2017 {published data only}
    1. World Health Organisation. Communicating risk in public health emergencies. A WHO guideline for emergency risk communication (ERC) policy and practice. https://www.who.int/emergencies/risk-communications#:~:text=For%20public.... (accessed April 2020). - PubMed
WHO 2020 {published data only}
    1. World Health Organization. Overview of public health and social measures in the context of COVID-19. Interim guidance 18 May 2020. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/overview-of-public-health-and-so... (accessed November 1st 2021).
WHO 2020a {published data only}
    1. World Health Organization. Risk communication and community engagement readiness and initial response for novel coronaviruses (nCoV): interim guidance, 10 January 2020. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/332301 (accessed November 1st 2021).
WHO 2020b {published data only}
    1. World Health Organization. Public health considerations for elections and related activities in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-elections-2020-1 (accessed November 1 2021).
WHO 2020c {published data only}
    1. World Health Organization. COVID-19 global risk communication and community engagement strategy December 2020 - May 2021: interim guidance, 23 December 2020. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/covid-19-global-risk-communicati... (accessed November 2nd 2021).
WHO 2021 {published data only}
    1. World Health Organization. Actions for consideration in the care and protection of vulnerable population groups for COVID-19. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/333043 (accessed March 10th 2022).
WHO 2021a {published data only}
    1. World Health Organization. Considerations for implementing and adjusting public health and social measures in the context of COVID-19: interim guidance, 14 June 2021. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/considerations-in-adjusting-publ... (accessed November 1st 2021).
WHO 2021b {published data only}
    1. World Health Organization. Considerations for quarantine of contacts of COVID-19 cases: interim guidance. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/342004 (accessed November 1st 2021).
Zhong 2020 {published data only}
    1. Zhong BL, Luo W, Li HM, Zhang QQ, Liu XG, Li WT, et al. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices towards COVID-19 among Chinese residents during the rapid rise period of the COVID-19 outbreak: a quick online cross-sectional survey. International Journal of Biological Sciences 2020;16(10):1745-52. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
Zhu 2020 {published data only}
    1. Zhu Y, Fu KW, Grepin KA, Liang H, Fung IC. Limited early warnings and public attention to COVID-19 in China, January-February, 2020: a longitudinal cohort of randomly sampled Weibo users. Disaster Medicine & Public Health Preparedness 2020;14(5):e24-e27. [DOI: 10.1017/dmp.2020.68] - DOI - PMC - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

AASLD 2020 {published data only}
    1. American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Clinical insights for hepatology and liver transplant providers during the COVID-19 pandemic. https://www.aasld.org/news/aasld-releases-clinical-insight-guide-treatin... (accessed 2 November 2021).
Abbas 2021 {published data only}
    1. Abbas J, Wang D, Su Z, Ziapour A. The role of social media in the advent of COVID-19 pandemic: crisis management, mental health challenges and implications. Risk Management & Healthcare Policy 2021;14:1917-32. - PMC - PubMed
Adlhoch 2020 {published data only}
    1. Adlhoch C, Baka A, Cenciarelli O, Penttinen P, Palm D, Plachouras D. Contact tracing: public health management of persons, including healthcare workers, having had contact with COVID-19 cases in the European Union - third update. https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/covid-19-contac... (accessed 2 November 2021).
Allen 2020 {published data only}
    1. Allen D, Allen JG, Jenkins H, Levinson M. Schools and the path to zero: strategies for pandemic resilience in the face of high community spread. 2020; published online Dec. https://ethics.harvard.edu/schools-and-path-zero (accessed 2 November 2021).
Alom 2021 {published data only}
    1. Alom S, Chiu CM, Jha A, Lai SHD, Yau THL, Harky A. The effects of COVID-19 on cancer care provision: a systematic review. Cancer Control 2021;28:1073274821997425. - PMC - PubMed
Alvarez‐Galvez 2021 {published data only}
    1. Alvarez-Galvez J, Suarez-Lledo V, Rojas-Garcia A. Determinants of infodemics during disease outbreaks: a systematic review. Frontiers in Public Health 2021;9:603603. - PMC - PubMed
Amerio 2020 {published data only}
    1. Amerio A, Odone A, Marzano L, Costanza A, Aguglia A, Serafini G, et al. Covid-19: the last call for telepsychiatry. Acta Bio-medica: Atenei Parmensis 2020;91(3):e2020050. - PMC - PubMed
Andrikopoulos 2020 {published data only}
    1. Andrikopoulos S, Johnson G. The Australian response to the COVID-19 pandemic and diabetes - lessons learned. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 2020;165:108246. - PMC - PubMed
Anglemyer 2020 {published data only}
    1. Anglemyer A, Moore TH, Parker L, Chambers T, Grady A, Chiu K, et al. Digital contact tracing technologies in epidemics: a rapid review. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2020, Issue 8. Art. No: CD013699. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD013699] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Aniceto 2021 {published data only}
    1. Aniceto NB. Pandemic privilege: a student's perspective. American Journal of Public Health 2021;111(4):582-3. - PMC - PubMed
ANZICS 2020 {published data only}
    1. Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society. COVID-19 guidelines version 2 - April 15 2020. https://www.anzics.com.au/anzics-covid-19-guidelines (accessed November 16th 2021).
ANZICS 2020b {published data only}
    1. Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society. COVID-19 guidelines version 3 20 October 2020. https://www.anzics.com.au/anzics-covid-19-guidelines (accessed 16 November 2021).
ASRM 2020 {published data only}
    1. American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Patient management and clinical recommendations during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. March 17 2020. https://www.asrm.org/globalassets/asrm/asrm-content/news-and-publication... (accessed 16 November 2021).
Barry 2013 {published data only}
    1. Barry MM, Sixsmith J, Infanti JJ. A literature review on effective risk communication for the prevention and control of communicable diseases in Europe. https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/literature-review-effect... (accessed 1 November 2021).
Bhaumik 2020 {published data only}
    1. Bhaumik S, Moola S, Tyagi J, Nambiar D, Kakoti M. Community health workers for pandemic response: a rapid evidence synthesis. BMJ Global Health 2020;5(6):e002769. - PMC - PubMed
Bin 2021 {published data only}
    1. Bin Naeem S, Kamel Boulos MN. COVID-19 misinformation online and health literacy: a brief overview. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021;18(15):8091. [DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18158091] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Bittencourt 2020 {published data only}
    1. Bittencourt MS, Generoso G, Melo PHMC, Peixoto D, Miranda EJFP, Mesquita ET, et al. Statement - protocol for the reconnection of cardiology services with patients during the COVID-19 pandemic - 2020. Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia 2020;115(4):776-99. - PMC - PubMed
Blasioli 2022 {published data only}
    1. Blasioli E, Hassini E. E-Health technological ecosystems: advanced solutions to support informal caregivers and vulnerable populations during the COVID-19 outbreak. Telemedicine and e-Health 2022;28(2):138-49. - PubMed
Bokolo 2020 {published data only}
    1. Bokolo A. Use of telemedicine and virtual care for remote treatment in response to COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Medical Systems 2020;44(7):1-9. - PMC - PubMed
Bolcato 2020 {published data only}
    1. Bolcato M, Aurilio MT, Aprile A, Di Mizio G, Della Pietra B, Feola A. Take-home messages from the COVID-19 pandemic: strengths and pitfalls of the Italian national health service from a medico-legal point of view. Healthcare 2020;9:17. - PMC - PubMed
Bonell 2020 {published data only}
    1. Bonell C, Michie S, Reicher S, West R, Bear L, Yardley L, et al. Harnessing behavioural science in public health campaigns to maintain ‘social distancing’in response to the COVID-19 pandemic: key principles. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2020;74(8):617-19. - PMC - PubMed
Boschiero 2021 {published data only}
    1. Boschiero MN, Capasso Palamim CV, Ortega MM, Mauch RM, Lima Marson FA. One year of coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) in Brazil: a political and social overview. Annals of Global Health 2021;87(1):44. - PMC - PubMed
Bouznad 2020 {published data only}
    1. Bouznad S, Ibourk A. School closures, equality of opportunity: some recommendations. Revista Romaneasca Pentru Educatie Multidimensionala 2020;12(2):103-10.
Braithwaite 2020 {published data only}
    1. Braithwaite I, Callender T, Bullock M, Aldridge RW. Automated and partially-automated contact tracing: a rapid systematic review to inform the control of COVID-19. Lancet Digital Health 2020;2(11):e607-e621. [DOI: 10.1016/S2589-7500(20)30184-9] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Brooks 2021 {published data only}
    1. Brooks SK, Greenberg N, Wessely S, Rubin GJ. Factors affecting healthcare workers’ compliance with social and behavioural infection control measures during emerging infectious disease outbreaks: rapid evidence review. BMJ Open 2021;11(8):e049857. - PMC - PubMed
Busa 2021 {published data only}
    1. Busa F, Bardanzellu F, Pintus MC, Fanos V, Marcialis MA. COVID-19 and school: to open or not to open, that is the question. The first review on current knowledge. Pediatric Reports 2021;13(2):257-78. - PMC - PubMed
Cachon‐Zagalaz 2020 {published data only}
    1. Cachon-Zagalaz J, Sanchez-Zafra M, Sanabrias-Moreno D, Gonzalez-Valero G, Lara-Sanchez AJ, Zagalaz-Sanchez ML. Systematic review of the literature about the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the lives of school children. Frontiers in Psychology 2020;11:569348. [DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.569348] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Carter 2021 {published data only}
    1. Carter P, Megnin-Viggars O, Rubin GJ. What factors influence symptom reporting and access to healthcare during an emerging infectious disease outbreak? A rapid review of the evidence. Health Security 2021;19(4):353-63. - PMC - PubMed
CDC 2020 {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Operating schools during COVID-19: CDC considerations. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/92308 (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2020a {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim guidance: get your mass gatherings or large community events ready for Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/85893 (accessed November 2nd 2021);March 15 2020.
CDC 2020b {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for triage of suspected COVID-19 patients in non-US healthcare settings: early identification and prevention of transmission during triage. Updated 2021. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/non-us-settings/sop-triage... (accessed November 2nd 2021);July 14th 2021.
CDC 2020c {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Additional considerations for the use of masks among K12 students: coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) factsheet. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/downloads/community/CFC_Guide_... (accessed November 17th 2021).
CDC 2020d {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Considerations for school closure. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/index.html (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2020e {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 and cooling centers. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/php/cooling-center.html (accessed November 17th 2021).
CDC 2020f {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Preventing the spread of COVID-19 in a variety of settings throughout your community: guidance about preventing COVID-19 infections in diverse settings. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/php/infection-control.html (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2020g {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidance for administrators in parks and recreational facilities. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/96157 (accessed November 17th 2021).
CDC 2020h {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. What law enforcement personnel need to know about coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/85653 (accessed 2 November 2021).
CDC 2020i {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Preventing the spread of COVID-19 in retirement communities and independent living facilities (interim guidance). https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/downloads/guidance-retirement-... (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2020j {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 considerations for traveling amusement parks and carnivals. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/96189 (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2020k {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 critical infrastructure sector response planning. https://stacks.cdc.gov › cdc › cdc_97252_DS1 (accessed November 17th 2021).
CDC 2020l {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidance for large or extended families living in the same household. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/98341 (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2020n {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Considerations for memory care units in long-term care facilities. Updated May 12, 2020. https://public4.pagefreezer.com/browse/CDC%20Covid%20Pages/11-05-2022T12... (accessed November 17th 2021).
CDC 2020o {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Considerations for preventing spread of COVID-19 in assisted living facilities. https://www. cdc. gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/assisted-living. html (accessed November 23 2021).
CDC 2020p {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 guidance for shared or congregate housing. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/87266 (accessed 23rd November 2021).
CDC 2020q {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidance for K-12 school administrators on the use of masks in schools. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/98906 (accessed November 23rd 2021).
CDC 2020r {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim guidance for syringe services programs. https://public4.pagefreezer.com/browse/CDC%20Covid%20Pages/19-04-2022T12... (accessed 2nd November 2021).
CDC 2020s {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim recommendations for emergency medical services (EMS) systems and 911 public safety answering points/emergency communication centers (PSAP/ECCs) in the United States during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/90581 (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2020t {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Markets: operational considerations for COVID-19 mitigation measures in low resource settings. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/91489 (accessed November 23rd 2021).
CDC 2020u {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Using telehealth to expand access to essential health services during the COVID-19 pandemic. https://public4.pagefreezer.com/browse/CDC%20Covid%20Pages/11-05-2022T12... (accessed November 23rd 2021).
CDC 2020v {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Protecting seafood processing workers from COVID-19. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/96190 (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2020w {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. How to mitigate COVID-19 transmission in densely populated areas globally. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/95858 (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2020x {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim infection control guidance for public health personnel evaluating persons under investigation (PUIs) and asymptomatic close contacts of confirmed cases at their home or non-home residential settings. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/85936 (accessed November 17th 2021).
CDC 2021 {published data only}
    1. Public Health Agency of Canada. COVID-19 guidance for schools Kindergarten to Grade 12. URL 2021 version not available. 2022 update avaiable at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/schools-childcare/k-... (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2021a {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Operational strategy for K-12 schools through phased prevention. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/106255 (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2021aa {published data only}
    1. Control Centers for Disease. Considerations for aquatic venues. URL not available Archived.
CDC 2021ab {published data only}
    1. Control Centers for Disease, Prevention. Considerations for institutions of higher education. stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/96143 (accessed November 1 2021).
CDC 2021ac {published data only}
    1. Control Centers for Disease, Prevention. CDC’s interim guidance for general population disaster shelters during the COVID-19 pandemic. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/php/eh-practitioners/general-p... (accessed November 23rd 2021).
CDC 2021ad {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Considerations for community-based organizations. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/96195 (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2021ae {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Considerations for non-emergency vehicle transportation for tribal communities during COVID-19. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/tribal/non-ems-trans... (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2021af {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Considerations for restaurant and bar operators. URL 2021 guidance unavailable (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2021ag {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim guidance for homeless service providers to plan and respond to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/106928 (accessed November 23rd 2021).
CDC 2021ah {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim guidance on unsheltered homelessness and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) for homeless service providers and local officials. URL 2021 version unavailable (accessed November 24th 2021).
CDC 2021ai {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim guidance on people experiencing unsheltered homelessness. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/107838 (accessed November 24th 2021).
CDC 2021aj {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Investigating and responding to COVID-19 cases at homeless service provider sites. URL for 2021 version not available (accessed November 22nd 2021).
CDC 2021ak {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Manufacturing workers and employers. URL 2021 version not available (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2021al {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Providing care and treatment for people living with HIV in low-resource non-US settings during COVID-19 pandemic. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/global-covid-19/maintaining-es... (accessed November 17th 2021).
CDC 2021am {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Safe watering points during COVID-19. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/89691 (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2021an {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim guidance for SARS-CoV-2 testing and screening at institutions of higher education (IHEs). URL not available (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2021ao {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. What bus transit operators need to know about COVID-19. URL June 2021 not available (accessed November 17th 2021).
CDC 2021ap {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 overview and infection prevention and control priorities in non-US healthcare settings. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/non-us-settings/overview/i... (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2021aq {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidance and tips for tribal community living during COVID-19. URL 2021 advice not available (accessed November 23rd 2021).
CDC 2021ar {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Operational considerations for schools. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/107218 (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2021b {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Operational considerations for adapting a contact tracing program to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic in non-US settings. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/downloads/global-covid-19/oper... (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2021c {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Performing broad-based testing for SARS-CoV-2 in congregate correctional, detention, and homeless service settings. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/broad-based-testing.html (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2021d {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Contact tracing for COVID-19. URL no longer available (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2021e {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidance for organizing large events and gatherings. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/104842 (accessed November 9th 2021).
CDC 2021m {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Agriculture workers and employers. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/107141 (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2021n {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Considerations for communities of faith. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/98788 (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2021o {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidance for general population disaster shelters during a pandemic. https://www.cdc.gov/disasters/general-population-shelters-guidance.html (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2021p {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim infection prevention and control recommendations for healthcare personnel during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/109674 (accessed November 30th 2021).
CDC 2021q {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Operational considerations for community isolation centers for COVID-19 in low-resource settings. URL not available for 2021 advice (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2021s {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Operational considerations for the identification of healthcare workers and inpatients with suspected COVID-19 in non-US healthcare settings. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/104355 (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2021t {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cleaning and disinfecting your facility: every day and when someone is sick. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/disinfecting-buildin... (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2021u {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Strategies for protecting K-12 school staff from COVID-19. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/95771 (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2021v {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Strategies to mitigate healthcare personnel staffing shortages. URL to March 2021 version no longer active (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2021w {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim Guidance for Businesses and Employers Responding to Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), May 2020. URL no longer available (accessed 24 November 2021).
CDC 2021x {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim public health recommendations for fully vaccinated people. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/110779 (accessed November 16th 2021).
CDC 2021y {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Mitigation measures for COVID-19 in households and markets in non-US low-resource settings. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/global-covid-19/global-urban-a... (accessed November 2nd 2021).
CDC 2021z {published data only}
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim guidance on management of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in correctional and detention facilities. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/107037 (accessed November 17th 2021).
Chackalackal 2021 {published data only}
    1. Chackalackal DJ, Al-Aghbari AA, Jang SY, Ramirez TR, Vincent J, Joshi A, et al. The Covid-19 pandemic in low-and middle-income countries, who carries the burden? Review of mass media and publications from six countries. Pathogens and Global Health 2021;115(3):178-87. - PMC - PubMed
Chan 2020 {published data only}
    1. Chan EY, Shahzada TS, Sham TST, Dubois C, Huang Z, Liu S, et al. Narrative review of non-pharmaceutical behavioural measures for the prevention of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) based on the Health-EDRM framework. British Medical Bulletin 2020;136(1):46-87. - PMC - PubMed
Chawla 2020 {published data only}
    1. Chawla D, Chirla D, Dalwai S, Deorari AK, Ganatra A, Gandhi Al, et al. Perinatal-neonatal management of COVID-19 infection—guidelines of the Federation of Obstetric and Gynaecological Societies of India (FOGSI), National Neonatology Forum of India (NNF), and Indian Academy of Pediatrics (IAP). Indian Pediatrics 2020;57(6):536-48. - PMC - PubMed
Choukou 2021 {published data only}
    1. Choukou MA, Taha A, Qadeer A, Monnin C. Digital health technology for remote care in response to the COVID-19 pandemic: a scoping review. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences 2021;25(8):3386-94. - PubMed
Cobb 2021 {published data only}
    1. Cobb NA, Pisani L, Schultz MJ, Ferreira JC. Pragmatic recommendations for infection prevention and control practices for healthcare facilities in low-and middle-income countries during the COVID-19 pandemic. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2021;104(3 Suppl):25. - PMC - PubMed
Collins 2020 {published data only}
    1. Collins Montgomery E, Tam PI, Trehan I, Cartledge P, Bose A, Lanaspa M, et al. Strengthening health systems and improving the capacity of pediatric care centers to respond to epidemics, such as COVID-19 in resource-limited settings. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 2020;66(4):357-65. - PMC - PubMed
Couto 2020a {published data only}
    1. Couto KC, Lorenzo FM, Tagliabue M, Henriques MB, Lemos RF. Underlying principles of a Covid-19 behavioral vaccine for a sustainable cultural change. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2020;17(23):9066. - PMC - PubMed
Daszak 2021 {published data only}
    1. Daszak P, Keusch GT, Phelan AL, Johnson CK, Osterholm MT. Infectious disease threats: a rebound to resilience. Health Affairs 2021;40(2):204-11. - PubMed
DEHS 2020 {published data only}
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Deolmi 2020 {published data only}
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Imtiaz 2020 {published data only}
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Kumar 2020 {published data only}
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Leon Singh 2020 {published data only}
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Silva 2021 {published data only}
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Taylor 2020 {published data only}
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Ting 2020 {published data only}
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Tonin 2020 {published data only}
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Tsao 2021 {published data only}
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Wake 2020 {published data only}
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Wallace 2020 {published data only}
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Wang 2020 {published data only}
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WHO 2020f {published data only}
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WHO 2020g {published data only}
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WHO 2020h {published data only}
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WHO 2020i {published data only}
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Wilkinson 2020 {published data only}
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Yazew 2021 {published data only}
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Yu 2020 {published data only}
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Yuan 2021 {published data only}
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Yue 2020 {published data only}
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Zhang 2021 {published data only}
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References to studies awaiting assessment

Adab‐Corpa 2021 {published data only}
    1. Abad-Corpa E, Sanchez-Lopez D, Moreno-Casbas MT. Scoping review about the recommendations for home isolation in the COVID-19 pandemic [ Scoping review sobre las recomendaciones para el aislamiento domiciliario en la pandemia de COVID-19]. Enfermería Clínica 2021;31:S94-S99. - PMC - PubMed
Dreyer 2020 {published data only}
    1. Dreyer G, Snyman L. South Africa’s response to COVID-19: on the positive side. In: Obstetrics and Gynaecology Forum. Vol. 30(2). 2020:1-1.
Ghungrud 2021 {published data only}
    1. Ghungrud D, Singh S, Sharma R, Pohekar S. Engaging school going children during Covid-19 lockdown. Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology 2021;15(1):375-81.
Jun 2020 {published data only}
    1. Jun MA. Key messages and actions for coronavirus peneumonia prevention and control in education institutions. Chinese Journal of School Health 2020;41(4):481-83.
Kang 2020 {published data only}
    1. Kang C. How should messages be communicated in Covid 19 pandemic? Let’s use the expressions “self-caring during quarantine” and “distancing for preventing the spread of infection”! [코로나19 팬데믹 상황에서 메시지는 어떻게 소통되어야 하는가? ‒'격리 중 자기돌봄'과 '감염확산방지를 위한 거리두기'라는 표현을 사용하자!]. Cheolhak-Korean Journal of Philosophy 2020;143:87-109.
Odendaal 2020 {published data only}
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Thomson 2021 {published data only}
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References to ongoing studies

Grimani 2021 {published data only}
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Monteiro 2021 {published data only}
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Additional references

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References to other published versions of this review

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